Introduction to Graduate Scholarship

English 760

Autumn Term 2003

Field Report outlines and bibliographies

Romantic Era Timeline (download a pdf of the Romanic Era Timeline and Bibliography)

Ally Godel
9 September 2003

1775: American Revolution begins. Watt invents more efficient steam engine.
1782: End of American Revolution
1789: French Revolution
1790: William Blake publishes The Songs of Innocence and Experience
1793: Robespierre and the Terror spread across France.
William Godwin writes Inquiry Concerning Political Justice.
1798: First edition of Lyrical Ballads by Wordsworth and Coleridge published anonymously.
1801: Union of Great Britain and Ireland.
1804: Napoleon declared Emperor
1811: George, Prince of Wales, acts as Regent for George III
1811-1812: Luddite riots in the North. Laborers attack factories and break up the machines which they fear will replace them.
1815: The Battle of Waterloo
1816: Lord Byron and the Shelley’s spend the summer in Geneva. Mary Shelley writes Frankenstein
1818-1822: Byron writes Don Juan
1819: Peterloo massacre of Corn Laws
Percy Bysshe Shelley writes Prometheus Unbound, Ode to the West Wind, The Cenci
1820: George IV becomes king after George III dies.
1821: Keats dies in Italy
1822: Percy Bysshe Shelley dies/commits suicide.
1830: George IV dies and is succeeded by William IV, his brother.
1832: The first Reform Bill passes in Parliament
1833: Slavery abolished throughout British Empire.

Romantic Era Bibliography

Abrams, Meyer H., and Jack Stillinger, eds. "The Romantic Period (1785-1830)." The Norton Anthology of English Literature. 6th ed. Vol. 2. Gen. ed. M. H. Abrams. New York: Norton, 1993.
---. "The Romantic Period." The Norton Anthology of English Literature. 7th ed. Vol. 2. Gen. ed. M. H. Abrams and Stephen Greenblatt. New York: Norton, 1999.
Ashfield, Andrew, ed. Romantic Women Poets, 1770-1838: An Anthology. Rev. ed. Vol. I. Manchester and New York: Manchester UP, 1995, 1997.
---. Romantic Women Poets, 1788-1848: An Anthology. Vol. II. Manchester and New York: Manchester UP, 1998.
Bennett, Betty T., ed. British War Poetry in the Age of Romanticism: 1793-1815. New York: Garland, 1976.
Bloom, Harold and Lionel Trilling, eds. The Oxford Anthology of English Literature. Vol. 4, Romantic Poetry and Prose. New York: Oxford UP, 1973.
Breen, Jennifer, ed. Women Romantic Poets 1785-1832 An Anthology. London and Vermont: J. M. Dent and Charles E. Tuttle, 1992, 1994.
---. Women romantics, 1785-1832 : Writing in Prose. London: J.M. Dent; Rutland, Vt.: C.E. Tuttle, 1996. [Everyman]
Feldman, Paula R., ed. British Women Poets of the Romantic Era: An Anthology. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1997.
Feldman, Paula and Daniel Robinson. Sonnets of the Romantic Period. New York: Oxford UP, 1999.
Jump, Harriet Devine, ed. Women's Writing of the Romantic Period 1789-1836: An Anthology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 1997.
Kelly, Gary and Anne McWhir, eds. Romantic Literature. Ontario: Broadview, forthcoming.
Leader, Zachary and Ian Haywood, eds. Romantic Period Writings, 1798-1832: An Anthology. London; New York: Routledge, 1998.
Mack, Maynard, ed. The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces. 4th ed. New York: Norton, 1979.
Manning, Peter and Susan Wolfson, eds. "The Romantics and Their Contemporaries." The Longman's Anthology of British Literature. Vol. 2. Gen. ed. David Damrosch. New York: Longman's, 1997.
Martin, Brian, ed. The Nineteenth Century (1798-1900). St. Martin's Anthologies of English Literature. Vol. 4. New York: St. Martin's P, 1990.
Mellor, Anne K. and Richard E. Matlak, eds. British Literature 1780-1830. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace, 1996.
Norton, Rictor, ed., Gothic Readings: The First Wave, 1764-1840. London and New York: Leicester University Press, 2000.
Rogers, Katharine M., ed. The Meridian Anthology of Eighteenth-Century and Nineteenth-Century British Drama. New York: Meridian/Penguin, 1979.
The Romantic Movement: A Selective and Critical Bibliography for [1936- ]. West Coornwall: Locust Hill, 1980- .
Scrivener, Michael, ed. Poetry and Reform: Periodical Verse from the English Democratic Press 1792-1824. Detroit: Wayne State UP, 1992.

Scholarly Journals
Studies in Romanticism
Nineteenth-Century Literature
Keats-Shelley Journal
The Wordsworth Circle

The Victorian Era (1832-1901) (download timeline and bibliography)

Shukti Banerjee

1) 1832: The first Reform Bill.
2) 1832: Abolition of archaic electoral system.
3) 1837: Victoria becomes Queen.
4) 1837: Sunday Observance Bill.
5) 1838: Chartists drew up a “People’s charter”, advocating the extension of the
right to vote, the use of secret balloting, and other legislative reforms.
6) 1846: The Corn laws repealed.
7) 1848: The first college for women established in London
8) 1851: The Great Exhibition in London.
9) 1854-56: War against Russians at Crimea.
10) 1859: Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species published.
11) 1867: The Second Reform Bill.
12) 1870: London becomes the world’s banker.
13) 1870-71: Franco-Prussian War.
14) 1873-74: Severe economic depression.

Writers/Poets
Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881)
1833: Sartor Resartus published in Fraser’s Magazine.
1834: Moves to London from Craigenputtock in Scotland.
1837: The French Revolution published.
1843: Past and Present published.
1866: Death of Jane Carlyle.

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
1833 & 1859: What is Poetry?
1848: Principles of Political Economy.
1859: On Liberty.
1869: The Subjection of Women.
1873: Autobiography.

Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809-1892)
1830: Poems, chiefly Lyrical.
1842: Poems.
1850: In Memoriam. Tennyson appointed Poet Laureate.
1855: Published Maud, experimental monologue.
1859: Idylls of the king (first 4 books).

Robert Browning (1812-1889)
1846: Marriage to Elizabeth Barrett and residence in Italy.
1855: Men and Women published.
1861: Death of Elizabeth Barrett Browning.
1868-69: The Ring and the Book published.

Charles Dickens (1812-70)
1836-37: Pickwick Papers.
1837-38: Oliver Twist.
1842: First Visit to America.
1849-50: David Copperfield.
1865-66: Our Mutual Friend.

George Elliot (real name Marian Evans) (1819-1880)
1846: The Life of Jesus (translation).
1859: Adam Bede.
1856: The mill on the Floss.
1871-72: Middlemarch.

Mathew Arnold (1822-1888)
1847: Private Secretary to Lord Lansdowne.
1851: Became Inspector of Schools.
1857: Elected Professor of Poetry at Oxford.
1869: Culture and Anarchy published.
1883 & 1886: Visit to America.

Other eminent poets
Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806-1861), Emily Bronte (1818-1848), Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828-1882), Christina Rossetti (1830-1894), George Meredith (1828-1909), William Morris (1834-1896), Edward Fitzgerald (1809-1883), Arthur Hugh Clough (1819-1861), Algernon Charles Swinburne (1837-1909), Francis Thompson (1859-1907).

Nonsense Verse
Lewis Carroll (1832-1898)
1865: Alice in Wonderland.
1871: Through the looking Glass.
Others: Edward Lear (1812-1888).

Critical and Controversial Prose
John Ruskin (1819-1900)
1843: Publication of first volume of Modern Painters.
1851-53: The Stones of Venice.
1860: Unto This Last.
Walter Palter (1839-1894)
1873: Publication of Studies in the History of Renaissance, a collection of essays.
Others: John Henry Cardinal Newman (1801-1890), Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895).

Main Topics in the Victorian Literature.
I. Evolution
1) Charles Darwin
a) Origin of Species. b) Adaptation Theory.
2) The Descent of Man.
II. Industrialism: Progress or Decline?

Selected Bibliography

1) The Norton Anthology of English Literature, vol. 2.
2) The Age of Improvement, Asa Briggs.
3) The Victorian Temper, Jerome Buckley.
4) The Making of Victorian England, G. Kitson Clark.
5) England in the 19th century, David Thomson.
6) The Ringers of the Tower, Harold Bloom.
7) Suffer and Be Still: Women in the Victorian Age, Martha Vicinus.
8) In Bluebirds’ Castle, George Steiner.
9) The Other Victorians, Steven Marcus.
10) Victorian Literature: Selected Essays, Robert Preyer.
11) The Victorian Poets: A Guide to Research, F.E. Faverty.
12) Victorian Fiction: A Guide to Research, Lionel Stevenson.
13) Victorian Prose: A Guide to Research, David J. DeLaura.
14) Keats and Victorians, George Ford.
15) The Poetry of Experience, Robert Langbaum.
16) Backgrounds to Victorian Literature, Richard Levine.
17) The Major Victorian Poets: Reconsiderations, Isabel Armstrong.
18) The Disappearance of God: Five 19th century writers, J. Hillis Miller.
19) London: A Pilgrimage, Gustav Dore.
20) Victorian England: Portrait of an Age, G.M. Young.

The 20th Century (download the timeline, outline and bibliography)

Timeline: 20th Century

1901: Queen Victoria dies, succeeded by Edward VII
1902: End of Anglo-Boer War
1904: Wright brothers make first successful flight
1905: Einstein publishes special theory of relativity
1908: The first assembly line (Henry Ford’s Model T)
1910: George V reign begins (Georgian era)
1912: Titanic sinks
Major strikes in England
1914: First World War begins
1916: Easter Rising in Ireland
1918: Franchise Act gives women over 30 right to vote
1920: Partition in Ireland
Treaty of Versailles
Ghandi leads independence movement in India
1921-1922: annus mirabilis (Women in Love by Lawrence, The Waste Land by Eliot, Ulysses by Joyce)
1925: Mrs. Dalloway by Woolf Published
1933: Hitler comes to power in Germany
1936: George V succeeded by Edward VII, who abdicates in favor of his brother, George VI
1939: World War II begins
1940: Winston Churchill becomes Prime Minister
Battle of Britain (first battle fought completely in the air)
1941: Deaths of James Joyce and Virginia Woolf
1944: Invasion of Normandy
1945: Victory in Europe
First atomic bomb detonated
Post-modernism begins
1947: India and Pakistan become independent nations
1948: Beginning of the Cold War
1952: Elizabeth II assumes throne
1961: Berlin Wall built
UK applies to join Common Market
1964: Beatlemania!!!
1966: Gambia and Rhodesia declare independence from Britain
1972: Britain enters Common Market
Troubles in Northern Ireland (IRA vs. British Army)
1974: IRA bombs in London
1979: Margaret Thatcher becomes first female Prime Minister
Introduction of the p.c.
1981: IRA hunger strikes in Northern Ireland
AIDS recognized
1982: Britain defeats Argentina in Falklands War
1989: Berlin Wall falls
1994: IRA ceases action for peace talks
1998: British handover of Hong Kong to China

20th Century British (and Irish) Authors

Oscar Wilde
The Picture of Dorian Gray, The Critic as Artist, The Importance of Being Earnest, An Ideal Husband
Ernest Downson
Verses
Thomas Hardy
Jude the Obscure, Tess of the D’Ubervilles, Wessex Poems
Gerald Manley Hopkins
Poems published posthumously
George Bernard Shaw
Plays Pleasant and Unpleasant, Major Barbara, Pygmalion, Heartbreak House
Joseph Conrad
Heart of Darkness, Nostromo
William Butler Yeats (1923: Nobel Prize)
The Tower, Collected Poems
James Joyce
Ulysses, Dubliners, Finnegan’s Wake, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man
D.H. Lawrence
Sons and Lovers, The Rainbow, Women in Love, Lady Chatterly’s Lover
T. S. Eliot
Prufrock and Other Observations, The Waste Land, Four Quartets, Essays
A.E. Houseman
The Name and Nature of Poetry, A Shropshire Lad, Last Poems
Rudyard Kipling (Nobel Prize: 1907)
Jungle Book, Captain Courageous, Kim
Rupert Brooke
Georgian Poetry 1913-1915
Edward Thomas
Manchester Guardian, Last Poems
Wilfred Owen
WWI poets, published posthumously
E.M. Forster
Where Angels Fear to Tread, Room with a View, Howard’s End, A Passage to India
Virginia Woolf
Mrs. Dalloway, Orlando, To the Lighthouse, The Waves, The Common Reader, The Second Common Reader
Leonard Woolf
Robert Graves
I, Claudius, King Jesus
W.H. Auden
Poems, On This Island, Another Time
Louis MacNiece
BBC
Dylan Thomas
The Map of Love, Death and Entrances, Collected Poems, Portrait of the Artist as a Young Dog
Samuel Beckett
Tom Stoppard
Harold Pinter
Martin Amis
A.S. Byatt
Possession
T. Coraghessen Boyle
Graham Greene
C.S. Lewis
The Screwtape Letters
William Golding
The Lord of the Flies
H.G. Wells
JRR Tolkien
The Lord of the Rings, The Hobbit
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
George Orwell
Iris Murdoch
Kingsley Amis
Lucky Jim

20th Century British Literature Bibliography

Abrams, M. H., and Steven Greenblatt. Norton Anthology of British Literature, Volume 2C: The Twentieth Century. 7th ed. New York: Norton, 1999.

Alexander, Marguerite. Flights from Realism : Themes and Strategies in Postmodernist British and American Fiction. New York: Routledge, Hall, and Chapman, 1990.

Bell, Inglis F., and Donald Baird. The English Novel, 1578-1956: A Checklist of Twentieth Century Criticisms. Denver: Swallow, 1958.

Crawford, Fred D. British Poets of the Great War. Associated University Press: London, 1988.

----. The Chosen Ground: Essays on the Contemporary Poetry of Northern Ireland. Ed. Neil Corcoran. Bridgend: Chester Springs, Penn, 1992.

Contemporary British Women Writers: Narrative Strategies. Ed. Robert E. Hossmer, Jr. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993.

Dictionary of British Literary Characters: 20th-Century Novels. Ed. John R. Greenfield. New York: Facts on File, 1994.

Encyclopedia of World Literature in the 20th Century. Ed. Steven R. Serafin. 3rd ed. 4 vols. Farmington Hills: St. James, 2000.

----. Longman Anthology of British Literature, Volume II: Romantics to 20th Century. 2nd ed. New York: Longman, 2002.

Mellown, Elgin W. A Descriptive Catalogue of the Bibliographies of Twentieth Century British Poets, Novelists, and Dramatists. 2nd ed., rev. and enl. Troy: Whitson, 1978.

Palmer, Richard H. The Contemporary British History Play. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1998.

Pownell, David E. Articles on Twentieth Century Literature: An Annotated Bibliography, 1954 to 1970: An Expanded Cumulation of “Current Bibliography” in the Journal Twentieth Century Literature, Volume One to Volume Sixteen, 1955 to 1970. 7 vols. New York: Kraus-Thomson, 1973-1980.

Shaffer, Brian. The Blinding Torch: Modern British Literature and the Discourse of Civilization. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993.

Temple, Ruth Z. Twentieth Century British Literature; a Reference Guide and Bibliography. New York: Ungar, 1968.

Wiley, Paul. The British Novel: Conrad to the Present. AHM: Northbrook, Ill, 1973.

American Literature (1585-1800) (download bibliography and timeline)

Kelly Cameron

Timeline:
1517- Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses.
1526- First African slaves brought to what is now the United States by the Spanish.
1534- Henry VIII becomes head of English Church.
1558- Elizabeth I takes the crown.
1560- Protestantism appears in England.
1584- Queen Elizabeth I grants patent to Sir Walter Ralegh; settlement founded near Roanoke, in what is now Virginia.
1590- Roanoke settlement fails.
1607- Jamestown colony founded in what is now North Carolina; the Virginia
Company splits the land from Canada to Florida into two parts.
1608- Band of Puritans leave England after James Stuart takes the
throne. They settle in Holland, then embark on the Mayflower just 12 years
later.
1620- Colony of Plymouth founded in what is now Massachusetts.
1630- Massachusetts Bay Colony founded.
1641- Massachusetts becomes first colony to legally recognize slavery.
1662- Royal Society founded in Great Britain.
1670- Number of colonists is at 111,000. By 1760, the number would be 1,600,000. The population of aboriginal people, however, had been decimated. Estimated at 25,000 at 1600, the population was reduced by one-third during a two-year plague that began in 1616. During the period of colonial expansion, the indigenous population dwindled steadily.
1680- Pennsylvania founded.
1692- Beginning of Salem Witch Trials.
1704- First newspaper launched in colonies.
1729- Benjamin Franklin launches The Pennsylvania Gazette.
1750- Philadelphia is unofficial capital of the colonies.
1764- The Stamp Act enrages Bostonians.
1770- Boston Tea Party
1776- Second Continental Congress approves Declaration of Independence on July 4. American Revolution begins.
1783- British troops leave.
1784- The Treaty of Paris signed by Congress; the Revolutionary War officially ends.

The Puritan Experiment
Puritanism evolved in England as a reaction to Henry VIII’s formation of the Church of England. The Puritans thought the king and subsequent ruler, Elizabeth I, had not gone far enough; they wanted to rid the church even further of all the trappings of Catholicism. Like French theologian John Calvin, they thought God chose who those who would be saved and those who wouldn’t. The Puritans of Mayflower fame left England upon the death of Protestant Elizabeth I; the son of Mary Queen of Scots, James Stuart, then took the throne.
They saw themselves as “the Chosen People” who would make a godly society out of the dark wilderness. Puritans have a bad reputation. It seems to many modern readers that the religion was joyless and overly concerned with damnation. They did have a doctrine of election — that God chooses who will go to heaven before birth — but did not believe that most people were damned. And writings by Puritan authors reveal that there was passion in the religion — for God and His works.

John Winthrop (1588-1649)
• Governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony from 1630-1650.
• A Model of Christianity Charity, 1838.

Roger Williams (1603-1683)
• Nearly banished from Massachusetts Bay Colony; escaped to Rhode Island.
• A Key into the Language of America, 1643.

Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672)
• Came to Massachusetts Bay Colony at the age of 18 on Arbella.
• The Tenth Muse, Lately Sprung Up in America, 1650.

Cotton Mather (1663-1728)
• Preacher, historian.
• The Wonders of the Invisible World, 1692.
• Magnalia Christi Americana, 1702.

Other works:
Mary Rowlandson’s A Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson,
Michael Wigglesworth’s “Day of Doom”

The Enlightenment
Scientists and philosophers challenged Puritan thought, mainly the idea that even the tiniest action was guided by divine will. Scientist Sir Isaac Newton and philosopher John Locke thought the world a more rational, kinder place than the Puritans. This movement was Deism, the belief that the proof of a supreme being was the universe itself — not the Bible. They did not focus on the Fall of Adam, but believed all humans were good. Deism drew its focus away from the metaphysical aspects of the divine and onto ordinary individuals. The nature of mankind grew in importance; the focus became the individual experience.

The Great Awakening
The Enlightenment brought about, of course, a conservative backlash. England and the colonies experienced a number of religious revivals. As Puritanism faded in influence, there were attempts to regain the past. These attempts were based on a new philosophy that said people should not contain their emotions.

Phillis Wheatley (1753-1784)
• First black American to publish book.
• Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral, 1773

Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758)
• Removed from his pulpit in Northhampton, Mass.
• A Divine and Supernatural Light, 1734.
• Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, 1741.

The American Revolution
The American Revolution is known as the great age of the newspaper. The first colonial newspaper began in 1704; by the time of the Revolution, there were fifty. There was a great demand for nationalist literature. Although several dramatic events led up to the Revolution — The Stamp Act riots that resulted in the burning of Boston’s governor’s mansion, British soldiers firing on a Boston mob, the Boston Tea Party — a writer is credited with providing the impetus for revolution. Historians say almost every American read Thomas Paine’s Common Sense, which called for a separation from England, saying that God had instilled these feelings in Americans for a good purpose.

Thomas Paine (1737-1809)
• Came to America in 1774 with note from Ben Franklin.
• Common Sense, anonymous pamphlet, 1776.
• Crisis, series of pamphlets, 1776.
• Rights of Man, 1791.
• The Age of Reason, 1794.

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)
• Printer, scientist, politician, inventor.
• Poor Richard’s Almanac, 1733.
• The Autobiography, 1786.

Olaudah Equiano (1745-1797)
• First former slave to recount experiences without the aid of white ghostwriter or editor.
• The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, Written by Himself, 1789.

Bibliography

Barnstone, Aliki ed. et al. The Calvinist Roots of the Modern Era. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1997.
Baym, Nina ed. et al. The Norton Anthology of American Literature, Fourth Edition Volume 1. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1994.
Bremer, Francis J. John Winthrop: America’s Forgotten Founding Father. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Calloway, Colin G. American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995.
Copeland, David A. Debating the Issues in Colonial Newspapers: Primary Documents on the Events of the Period. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2000.
Daybell, James ed. Early Modern Women’s Letter Writing, 1450-1700. New York: Palgrave, 2001.
Dowd, Gregory Evans. A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992.
Ferguson, Robert A. The American Enlightenment 1750-1820. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997.
Foster, Steven. The Long Argument: English Puritanism and the Shaping of New England Culture, 1570-1700. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1991.
Gates, Henry Louis, Jr. ed. et al. The Norton Anthology of African American Literature. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1997.
Hensley, Jeannine ed. The Works of Anne Bradstreet. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1967.
Isaacson, Walter. Benjamin Franklin: An American Life. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003.
Pestana, Carla Gardina and Sharon U. Salinger eds. Inequality in Early America. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1999.
Ruland, Richard and Malcolm Bradbury. From Puritanism to Postmodernism: A History of American Literature. New York: Viking, 1991.
Shea, William M. and Peter A. Huff eds. Knowledge and Belief in America: Enlightenment Traditions and Modern Religious Thought.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
Warren, Joyce W. and Margaret Dickie eds. Challenging Boundaries: Gender and Periodization. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2000.

American Literature 1800-1875 Field Report (download pdf of timeline and bibliography)
Joshua Kern
September 25, 2003
Field Report

I. Historical Timeline
1. 1800 Washington D.C. becomes the capital
2. 1803 Louisiana Purchase
3. 1804-6 Louis and Clark expedition
4. 1806 Burr tried for treason
5. 1807 Embargo Act
6. 1808 Importation of slaves prohibited
7. 1809 Repeal of the Embargo Act; Nonintercourse Act
8. 1812-15 War of 1812
9. 1814 Creek Indians defeated
10. 1816 Regular transatlantic shipping
11. 1817 First Seminole War
12. 1819 Purchase of Florida
13. 1820 Missouri Compromise; first American missionaries in Hawaii
14. 1821 Santa Fe Trail
15. 1823 Monroe Doctrine
16. 1831 New England Anti-Slaver Society
17. 1833 American Anti-Slavery Society
18. 1835 Second Seminole War
19. 1836-45 Lone Star Republic
20. 1836 Battle of the Alamo; Mt. Holyoke Seminary (first women’s college)
21. 1838 Underground Railroad established
22. 1839 Aroostook War
23. 1841 Dorr’s Rebellion; Brook Farm
24. 1846 Mexican War (1846-48); Oregon acquired; Smithsonian Institute
25. 1848 Gold discovered in California; Seneca Falls women suffrage meeting
26. 1850 Fugitive Slave Law; Compromise of 1850
27. 1856 Know-Nothing movement
28. 1857 Dread Scott decision
29. 1858 Lincoln Douglas debates; first transatlantic cable
30. 1861 Lincoln’s administration; Civil War begins with the Battle of Fort Sumter and the secession of 10 southern states
31. 1862 Homestead Act
32. 1863 Emancipation Proclamation
33. 1865 Lee’s surrender at Appomattox ends the civil War; Lincoln assassinated; 13the Amendment outlaws slavery; first Ku Klux Klan organization
34. 1866 Civil Rights Bill
35. 1867 Reconstruction Act; purchase of Alaska
36. 1868 Johnson impeached
37. 1869 Union Pacific railway completed; “Black Friday”
38. 1871 Barnum opens his circus
39. 1873 Slaughterhouse cases
40. 1875 Greenback party founded; Arbor Day

II. Literary Movements
A. Romanticism (Romantic Individualism)
1. Influences
a. The French Revolution of 1789 and it’s spread of a belief in liberty, fraternity, equality
b. An open frontier with no geographic limits
c. Optimism (greater than Europe because of the frontier)
d. Experimentation, scientific and social
e. Immigrants arrive in large numbers from many cultures
f. Growth of industry and the polarization of the industrial north and the agricultural south
g. The institution of slavery
2. Characteristics
a. The quest for beauty
b. Far-away and non-normal; antiquity and supernatural
c. Escape from uniquely American problems
d. Interest in the natural world for and of itself
3. Attitudes
a. Willing suspension of disbelief was crucial
b. Emotion over reason
c. Subjectivity
4. Techniques
a. Remoteness of setting in time or place
b. Improbably plots
c. Organic principle: form rises out of content
d. Cultivation of the individualized

B. Transcendentalism
1. Influences
a. Drew on the Puritan and Quaker concept of a divine, inner light within every living person
b. Romanticism gave it the concept of nature as a mystery
c. Science and technology pushed aside religious and spiritual thinking in favor of secularization
d. The decline of Calvinism
e. Plato’s idealism and theories of reality as an expression of the spirit also contributed much to transcendentalism
2. While American Transcendentalism was really a way of life, it was not a religion because it’s emphasis was on this life, not an afterlife
3. The Big Three
a. Ralph Waldo Emerson
b. Henry David Thoreau
c. Margaret Fuller
4. Universal Tenants
a. Each individual embodies all of creation within themselves
b. The universe is a literal copy of the individual self; as with Aristotle, all knowledge begins with self-knowledge
c. Nature is a living mystery; nature is symbolic
d. The expansive tendency (to become one with the world) and the contracting tendency (to keep the self separate and withdrawn) must be reconciled
5. Connected Movements
a. Utopian movement
b. Anti-slavery movement
c. Women’s rights movement

C. Realism
1. Influences
a. Elevation of the commonplace and common experience
b. Backlash against Romanticism and Romantic writers
c. Self-realized morality/examination of idealism
d. Realism as a realization of democracy
2. Characteristics
a. Writing is done to instruct and entertain pragmatically
b. Character more important than plot and the author
c. Focused on the representative and the probable
d. Morality of Realism is integral and relativistic, exploring the relationship of people and society
e. Images versus symbolism
3. Techniques
a. “Write what you know”, particularly concerning setting
b. Plots emphasize the normality of daily experience
c. The ordinary studied in depth
d. Complete authorial objectivity
e. Responsible morality; true report of the world

D. Naturalism
1. Naturalism, whether seen as a continuation of Realism or as something new, focuses on the everyday, the minute of life
2. While there are many different views on the exact nature and subject matter of realism, the following generally hold true:
a. Free will is nonexistent, leading to a deterministic trend imposed both by society and the natural world
b. True heroism is affirming individuality in the face of a pre-determined future
c. The human is often seen as little more than an animal (with the exception of individuality), and characters will often be placed in situations which emphasis this
3. Though the movement started in this period, it would become more prominent after 1875

III. Authors
1. Romantics
a. Bryant, William Cullen (1794-1878)
b. Cooper, James Fenimore (1789-1851) – The Last of the Mohicans
c. Dana, Richard Henry Jr. (1815-1882) – Two Years Before the Mast
d. Douglas, Frederick (1818-1895)
e. Hawthorne, Nathaniel (1804-1864) – The House of Seven Gables, The Scarlet Letter
f. Holmes, Oliver Wendell (1808-1894) – The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table
g. Irving, Washington (1783-1859) – Rip Van Winkle, The Legend of Sleepy Hollow
h. Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth (1807-1882) – The Song of Hiawatha, Paul Revere’s Ride
i. Melville, Herman (1819-1891) – Moby Dick, Barteby
j. Poe, Edgar Allen (1809-1849) – The Raven, The Tell-Tale Heart, The Fall of the House of Usher
k. Stowe, Harriet Beecher (1811-1896) – Uncle Tom’s Cabin
l. Tocqueville, Alexis de (1805-1859) – Democracy in America

2. Transcendentalists
a. Dickenson, Emily (1830-1886) – Acts of Light
b. Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1803-1882)
c. Fuller, Margaret (1810-1850) – Seneca Falls Declaration
d. Garrison, William Lloyd (1805-1879)
e. Thoreau, Henry David (1817-1862) – Civil Disobedience, Walden
f. Whitman, Walk (1819-1892) – Leaves of Grass
g. Whittier, John Greenleaf (1807-1892)

3. Realists
a. Alcott, Louisa May (1832-1888) – Flower Fables, Little Women
b. Howells, William Dean (1837-1920)
c. James, Henry (1843-1916)
d. Jewett, Sarah Orne (1849-1909) – A White Heron
e. Twain, Mark (Samuel Clemens) (1835-1910) – The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer
f. Woolson, Constance Fenimore (1840-1894)

4. Naturalists
a. Bierce, Ambrose (1842-1914?)
b. Chopin, Kate (1851-1904) – The Awakening
c. Crane, Stephen (1871-1900) – The Red Badge of Courage, The Blue Hotel
d. Gilman, Charlotte Perkins (1860-1935)
e. Washington, Booker T. (1856-1915) – Up From Slavery, The Awakening of the Negro

5. Some other authors of the time
a. Bryant William Cullen
b. Crevecoeur, J. Hector St. John de
c. Du Bois, W.E. Burghardt
d. Edwards, Jonathan
e. Franklin, Benjamin
f. Jefferson, Thomas
g. Mather, Cotton
h. Paine, Thomas
i. Rowson, Susanna
j. Wilcox, Ella Wheeler
6. List of period authors by birth date at http://lang.nagoya-u.ac.jp/~matsuoka/AmeLit.html

Bibliography

Bauer, Dale M. and Philip Gould, Eds. The Cambridge Companion to Nineteenth
Century American Women’s Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Burduck, Michael L. Grim Phantasms: Fear in Poe’s Short Fiction. New York: Garland
Publishers, 1992.
Denny, Margaret and William H. Gilman, Eds. The American Writer and the European
Tradition. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1950.
Foote, Stephanie. Regional Fictions: Culture and Identity in Nineteenth-Century
American Literature. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2001.
Forrer, Richard. Theodicies in Conflict: A Dilemma in Puritan Ethics and Nineteenth
Century American Literature. New York: Greenwood Press, 1986.
Harris, Susan K. 19th Century American Women’s Novels: Interpretive Strategies.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Hart, James D. The Oxford Companion to American Literature. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1995.
Herreshoff, David Sprague. Labor into Art: The Theme of Work in Nineteenth-Century
American Literature. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991.
Kagle, Steven E. Early Nineteenth Century American Diary Literature. Boston: Twayne
Publishers, 1986.
Levander, Caroline Field. Voices of the Nation: Women and Public Speech in
Nineteenth-Century American Literature and Culture. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Matthiessen, F.O. American Renaissance: Art and Expression in the Age of Emerson and Whitman. London: Oxford University Press, 1941.
Merish, Lori. Sentimental Materialism: Gender, Commodity Culture and Nineteenth
Century American Literature. Durham: Duke University Press, 2000.
Miller, David C. Ed. American Iconology: New Approaches to Nineteenth-Century Art
And Literature. New Haven: Yale University press, 1993.
Miller, David C. Dark Eden: The Swamp in Nineteenth Century American Culture.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
Mott, Wesley T. Encyclopedia of Transcendentalism. Westport: Greenwood, 1996.
Pizer, Donald. Realism and Naturalism in Nineteenth-Century American Literature.
Carbondale: Southern Illinois University press, 1966.
Quirk, Tom and Gary Scharnhorst, Eds. American Realism and the Canon. Newark:
University of Delaware Press, 1994.
Spark, Clare. Hunting Captain Ahab: Psychological Warfare and the Melville Revival.
Kent: Kent State University Press, 2001.
Stearns, Peter N. and Jan Lewis, Eds. An Emotional History of the United States. New
York: New York University press, 1998.
Sundquist, Eric J. Home as Found: Authority and Genealogy in Nineteenth-Century
American Literature. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979.
Walker, Cheryl. Indian Nation: Native American Literature and Nineteenth-Century
Nationalisms. Durham: Duke University Press, 1997.
Warner, Nicholas O. Spirits of America: Intoxication in Nineteenth-Century American
Literature. Norman: University of Oklahoman Press, 1997.

Web Sites

Making of America. University of Michigan. 23 September 2003.
<http://www.hti.umich.edu/m/moagrp/>

Reuben, Paul P. PAL: Perspectives in American Literature: A Resarch and Reference Guide – An Ongoing Project. 14 September 2003. California State UniveristyEnglish Department. 23 September 2003.
<http://www.csustan.edu/english/reuben/home.htm>

The Archive: Late Nineteenth Century American Literature. Colorado State English Department. 23 September 2003. <http://www.colorado.edu/English/amlit/late19.html>

Journals

African American Review
American Indian Quarterly
American Literary History
American Realism
American Studies
American Quarterly
American Transcendental Quarterly
Henry James Review
Journal of American Folklore
Mark Twain Journal
Nineteenth-Century Contexts
Nineteenth Century Literature
Nineteenth Century Studies
Studies in American Indian Literature
Studies in American Renaissance
Twayne U.S. Authors Series
Walt Whitman Quarterly Review

20th Century American Literature: Modernism and Postmodernism (download timeline, bibliography and list of authors)

Modernism
The term modernism is widely used to identify new and distinctive features in the subjects, forms, concepts, and styles of literature and other arts basically between the Civil War and World War I. Realism and naturalism evolve into modernism; the term modernism comes from the phrase “modern temper,” which many used to describe the uneasy, distrustful, and leery attitudes most Americans had at the time.
• sense of a great civilization being destroyed or destroying itself: scientific advancements—development of atomic bomb
• feelings of fear and disorientation
• urbanization, industrialization, immigration
1920’s
• Henry Ford’s Model T
• popular culture emerged: record player, motion picture, radio
• 18th Amendment—prohibition
• flappers, gangsters, bootleggers, the Charleston, (The Great Gatsby)
• 1929-Stock market crash
1930’s
• Great Depression
• John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath
• politics and economics salient issues in American life
Influential Thinkers
• Karl Marx (1818-1883)
-believed that all behavior was economic and the leading feature of economic life was the division of society into antagonistic classes based on a relation to the means of production; the ideas and ideals of any particular society represented the interests of its dominant class.
• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
-hypothesized that the process of psychoanalysis would help patients understand these emotions and that understanding in turn would enable them to recover the ability to function as productive adults.
Great Art
• The defining characteristic of modern art is its construction out of fragments.
• Literature: James Joyce’s Ulysses, T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land,
Virginia Woolf’s Jacob’s Room (all three referred to as high modernism)
*term avant-garde: Ezra Pound’s phrase “make it new”
• Artists: Pablo Picasso, Juan Gris, George Braque
• Music: Igor Stravinsky’s The Rite of Spring

*The search for meaning, even if it does not succeed, becomes meaningful in itself. Literature, especially poetry, becomes the place where the one meaningful activity, the search for meaning, is carried out; and therefore literature is, or should be, vitally important to society. (Baym 916)

Authors – Modernism

Elizabeth Bishop (1911-1979)
-North and South
-Questions of Travel

Gwendolyn Brooks (1917- )
-A Street in Bronzeville
-The Bean Eaters

James Dickey (1923-1997)
-Into the Stone
-The Eyebeaters

Ralph Ellison (1914-1983)
-Invisible Man

William Faulkner (1897-1962)
-The Sound and the Fury
-Absalom, Absalom!
-Light in August

F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896-1940)
-The Great Gatsby
-Tender is the Night

Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961)
-The Sun Also Rises
-The Old Man and the Sea

Randall Jarrell (1914-1965)
-Little Friend, Little Friend

Robert Lowell (1917-1977)
-Lord Weary’s Castle
-Poems 1938-1949

Sylvia Plath (1932-1963)
-The Bell Jar
-The Colossus

Katherine Anne Porter (1890-1980)
-Flowering Judas
-Pale Horse

Theodore Roethke (1908-1963)
-Open House
-Collected Poems

Anne Sexton (1928-1974)
-To Bedlam
-All My Pretty Ones

Isaac Beshevis Singer (1904-1991)
-Gimbpel in the Fool
-A Little Boy in Search for God

Gertrude Stein (1874-1946)
-The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas

John Steinbeck (1902-1968)
-The Grapes of Wrath
-East of Eden

Eudora Welty (1909- )
-The Wide Net
-Delta Wedding

Richard Wilbur (1921- )
-The Beautiful Changes
-Ceremony

Richard Wright (1908-1960)
-Native Son

Postmodernism
This term is applied to literature and art after World War II; the effects on Western morale of the first war were greatly increased by the experience of Nazi rule, mass extermination, the threat of the atomic bomb, the progressive devastation of the environment, and overpopulation.
• a continuation of counter traditional style and form
• parallel with poststructuralism in linguistics and literary theory

New Writing Styles
• New Journalism
-writers who valued reportage and had developed literary techniques that kept pace with the explosive growth of the information age: http://www.creativenonfiction.org/

• Metafiction
-involved rejecting the principal convention of traditional fiction, the suspension of disbelief that enabled an invented story to be presented as factual. There were no false illusions in metafiction; what you see is what you get—the literary work represents nothing more than itself. Metafiction poses questions about the relationship between fiction and reality: http://www.eng.fju.edu.tw/Literary_Criticism/postmodernism/metafiction.htm

• Minimalism
-a term used in the 1960’s to describe a form of modern art avoiding any embellishment or dramatization; it employs geometric shapes and primary colors to achieve extreme simplicity of form and impersonal objectivity; less is more:
http://www.zeroland.co.nz/literature.html

Is there hope for literature / writing beyond the 20th century?

It has been said that our contemporary culture provides the greatest variety of literary expression available at any one time. From the war effort that demanded unity of purpose and a Cold War period that for a time encouraged conformity to a homogenetic ideal, American writing had emerged at the end of this century to include a sophisticated mastery of technique in service of a task broadened by understanding of literature’s role in characterizing reality. With inclusiveness the new rule and imaginative potential as a fresh ideal, writing has survived threats of its death to flourish more fully than ever. (Baym 1781)

Authors – Post Modernism

Edward Albee (1928- )
-Zoo Story
-The American Dream

A.R. Ammonds (1926- )
-Expressions of Sea Level
-Northfield Poems

Maya Angelou (1928- )
-I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings

James Baldwin (1924-1987)
-Notes of a Native Son
-Giovanni’s Room

Imamu Amiri Baraka (1934- )
-Preface to a Twenty Volume Suicide Note
-Home, Social Essays

John Barth (1930- )
-The Floating Opera

Donald Barthelme (1931-1989)
-The Dead Father
-60 Stories

Saul Bellow (1915- )
-Seize the Day
-Henderson the Rain King

Lawrence Ferlinghetti (1919- )
-Picture From the Gone World
-A Coney Island of the Mind

Allen Ginsberg (1926-1997)
-Howl
-Reality Sandwiches

Joseph Heller (1923- )
-Catch-22

John Irving (1942- )
-The World According to Garp
-The Hotel in New Hampshire

Tony Kushner (1956- )
-Angels in American

Denise Levertov (1923- )
-Jacob’s Ladder
-The Sorrow Dance

Norman Mailer (1923- )
-The Naked and the Dead
-Marilyn

Bernard Malamud (1914-1986)
-The Natural
-The Assistant

Arthur Miller (1915- )
-Death of a Salesman
-The Crucible

Toni Morrison (1931- )
-The Bluest Eye
-Beloved
-Song of Solomon

Joyce Carol Oates (1938- )
-Unholy Loves
-Contraries

Flannery O’Conner (1925-1964)
-Wise Blood
-Everything that Rises Must Converge

Thomas Pynchon (1937- )
-Gravity’s Rainbow
-The Crying of Lot 49

Adrienne Rich (1929- )
-Snapshots of a Daughter-in-Law
-Necessities of Life

J.D. Salinger (1919- )
-Catcher in the Rye
-Franny and Zooey

W.D. Snodgrass (1926- )
-Heart’s Needle

Garty Synder (1930- )
-A Range of Poems
-The Black Country

John Kennedy Toole (1937-1969)
-A Confederacy of Dunces

John Updike (1932- )
-Rabbit Run
-Pigeon Feathers

Kurt Vonnegut (1922- )
-Slaughterhouse-Five
-Cat’s Cradle

Alice Walker (1944- )
-The Color Purple
-The Temple of My Familiar

Tennessee Williams (1911-1983)
-The Glass Menagerie
-A Streetcar Named Desire

August Wilson (1945- )
-Fences
-Joe Turner’s Come and Gone

Bibliography:

The Norton Anthology of American Literature: Sixth Edition (Volumes A-E)
The Norton’s Sixth Edition instructor/student companion web site offers a tremendous amount of useful supplementary information: quizzes, outlines and summaries of each time period, timelines with historical-literary contexts, over 100 searchable literary links, and five discussion topics per volume to help generate critical thinking and discussion.
Timelines:
• Norton American Literature 1865-1914:
• http://www.wwnorton.com/naal/vol_C/timeline.htm

• Norton American Literature between the Wars, 1914-1945:
• http://www.wwnorton.com/naal/vol_D/timeline.htm

• Norton American Literature since 1945:
• http://www.wwnorton.com/naal/vol_E/timeline_prose.htm (prose)
• http://www.wwnorton.com/naal/vol_E/timeline_poetry.htm (poetry)

The Heath Anthology of American Literature: Third Edition
Basically, this web site follows the textbook closely; chapters, headings, and subheadings are presented like they are in the book, and links are provided to online text.
http://www.georgetown.edu/faculty/bassr/heath/

The McMichael Anthology of American Literature: Seventh Edition
This website also offers interactive and educational programs: timelines, web links, author profiles, essay questions, and bulletin board discussion areas.
http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/mcmichael/

Other anthologies:
Appiah, K. Anthony. "The Multiculturalist Misunderstanding." The New York Review of Books, October 9, 1997.
Bellamy, Edward. Looking Backward 2000-1887. New York: The Modern Library, 1917.
Bertens, Hans. The Idea of the Postmodern. A History. London and New York: Routledge, 1995.
Biddle, Arthur, Gloria Bien et al. Global Voices. Englewood Cliffs: A Blair Press Book, 1995. ISBN 0-13-299793-2.
Chenetier, Marc. Beyond Suspicion: New American Fiction Since 1960. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press,1996.
Delbanco, Andrew. Required Reading: Why our American Classics Matter Now. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1997.
Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction, Second Edition. Great Britain: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.,1996.
Ellis, John M. Literature Lost: Social Agendas and the Corruption of the Humanities. New York: Yale University Press, 1997.
Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990.
Gass, William H. Finding a Form. New York: Cornell University Press, 1996.
Gates, Henry Louis Jr. and Cornel West. The Future of the Race. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996.
Kitano, Harry H.L. and Roger Daniels. Asian Americans. Emerging Minorities. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1995.
Kymlicka, Will. Multicultural Citizenship. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995.
Lauter, Paul, ed. The Heath Anthology of American Literature. Volume one, second edition. Lexington, MA/Toronto: D.C. Heath and Company, 1994.
Lauter, Paul, ed. The Heath Anthology of American Literature. Volume two, second edition. Lexington, MA/Toronto: D.C. Heath and Company, 1994.
Lemna, Brian, ed. A Directory of American Poets and Fiction Writers: 1997-1998 Edition. New York: Poets & Writers, Inc., 1997.
Lim, Shirley Geok-lin and Amy Ling. Reading the Literatures of Asian America. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992.
Malloy, Judy. "Hypernarrative in the Age of theWeb." National Endowment for the Arts website: http://arts.endow.gov.
McMichael, George, ed. Anthology of American Literature: Volume II, Realism to the Present, Sixth Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1997.
Millett, Fred B. Contemporary American Authors. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1994.
Mills, Nicolaus, ed. Arguing Immigration. Are New Immigrants a Wealth of Diversity … or a Crushing Burden? New York: Simon and Schuster,1994.
Morrison, Toni. Playing in the Dark. Whiteness and the Literary Imagination. Cambridge,MA/London: Harvard University Press, 1992.
Pack, Robert and Jay Parini, eds. American Identities. Contemporary Multicultural Voices. Hanover and London: University Press of New England: 1994.
Perry, Donna. Backtalk. Women Writers Speak Out. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1993.
Roemer, Michael. Telling Stories: Postmodernism and the Invalidation of Traditional Narrative. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, Inc., 1995.
Scheer-Schaezler, Brigitte, ed. Immigrant Stories. New Fiction by New Writers. Berlin: Cornelsen Verlag, 1996.
Showalter, Elaine, ed. The New Feminist Criticism: Essays on Women, Literature and Theory. New York: Pantheon Books, 1985.
Simpson, David. The Academic Postmodern and the Rule of Literature: A Report on Half-Knowledge. London: The University of Chicago Press, 1995.
Wolff, Tobias, ed. The Vintage Book of Contemporary American Short Stories. New York: Vintage Contemporaries, 1994. ISBN 0-679-74513-0.

AFRICAN AMERICAN LITERATURE (download outline and bibliography)

Mariana Caballero
Dr. Mark Aune
English 760

What is African American Literature?
It is literature written by black Americans of African descent. Its themes include the exploration of black identity, the condemnation of racism, and the celebration of the unique aspects of African American culture.

THE VERNACULAR TRADITION (18th century, anonymous black sacred music, to 20th century blues, jazz, and rap).

In the African American Vernacular we find:
- Spirituals
- Gospel
- The Blues
- Secular Rhymes And Songs, Ballads, And Work Songs
- Jazz
- Rap
- Sermons
- Folktales

There are six chronological periods:

THE LITERATURE OF THE SLAVERY AND FREEDOM (1746-1865)
- The propaganda about freedom and the widespread practice of slavery showed the irony of the chiasm between white America’s words and its deeds.
- There was a struggle to obtain the abolition of slavery and equal status for black people.
- Slavery and racism were supported by prestigious philosophers such as Hegel, Kant and Hume, who sustained theories of racial differences.
- Narratives started to be written by the slaves themselves.
- Slave narratives influenced by Harriet Beecher’s Uncle’s Tom Cabin (1852)
- 1850’s – 1860’s: First renaissance in African American letters. African American writers expanded their horizons with new forms and themes.
- Folk traditions: communal consciousness of millions of slaves. Work song, spirituals, animal tales

Lucy Terry (c. 1730-1821)
- Bars Fight
Olaudah Equiano (c. 1745-1797)
- The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, Written by Himself

Phillis Wheatley (1753?-1784)
- Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral
David Walker (1785-1830)
- David Walker’s Appeal in Four Article; Together with a Preamble, to the Coloured Citizens of the World.
George Moses Horton (1797-1883?)
- The Lover’s Farewell
- On Hearing of the Intention of a Gentleman to Purchase the Poet’s Freedom
- Division of an Estate
Harriet Jacobs (1803-1879)
- Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl
William Wells Brown (1814?-1884)
- Narrative of William W. Brown, a Fugitive Slave
- Clotel; or The President’s Daughter
Frederick Douglass (1818-1895)
- Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself
- My Bondage and My Freedom
- Life and Times of Frederick Douglass
Harriet E. Wilson (1828-1863?)
- Our Nig; or, Sketches from the Life of a Free Black, in a Two-Story White House, North

LITERATURE OF THE RECONSTRUCTION TO THE NEW NEGRO RENAISSANCE (1865-1919)
- After the war there was the need to solve structural problems (left by the war and created by it).
- After the civil war, narratives doubled. African Americans presented their experiences in overcoming past adversities as models for the present.
- 1869: First transcontinental road
- The speed of transport favored the growth of big cities.
- Many cultures living together and some ruled the others.
- Freedman’s Bureau to protect the lives and rights of blacks in the South. It established cooperatives, set up schools (4000), trained the newly freed slaves in the rituals of citizenship.
- 1877: The withdrawal of federal troops from the South, the return of Democrats to power and the reversal by state and federal courts of protective legislation for African Americans marked the end of the Reconstruction.
- 1881: Tuskegee Institute, established by Booker T. Washington. It was the result of interracial cooperation. It was a school for African Americans sponsored by blacks and whites; it was headed by a black president and was mainly vocational.
- African American literature was used to confirm and manifest creativity and genius while also documenting and shaping social, political and spiritual aspirations.
- The African American Press: diverse group of African American individuals and institutions unified to take African American writers works to African American readers and to have uplifting, positive and forward thinking publications.

Booker T. Washington (1856-1915)
- Up From Slavery
James Weldon Johnson (1871-1938)
- Sence You Went Away
- Lift Ev’ry Voice and Sing
- O Black and Unknown Bards
- Fifty Years
- Brothers
- The Creation
Charles W. Chesnutt (1858-1932)
- The Goophered Grapevine
- The Passing of Grandison
- The Wife of His Youth
Fenton Johnson (1888-1958)
- Singing Hallelujia
- Song of the Whirlwind
- My God in Heaven Said to Me
- The Scarlet Woman

THE HARLEM RENAISSANCE (1919-LATE 1930’s)
- 1920’s was a decade of extraordinary creativity in the arts for African Americans.
- The focus was the activities of African Americans in New York City, in the district of Harlem.
- It was a cultural movement of national scope that witnessed a great amount of African American publications of great variety and scope.
- This movement was linked to the Negritude movement among French-speaking black writers, and to the flowering of literature in the British West Indies.
- Bad conditions in the South for blacks and the rapid industrial expansion of the North motivated a great migration to the North, specially New York.
- Artists moved to Harlem motivated by this movement.
- Whites helped in different ways in this renaissance. This was necessary due to the big chiasm between blacks and whites.
- There were many young artists interested in theater, but few made it a priority.
- The best-known dramas of black life were written by blacks.
- The Harlem Renaissance depended largely on a special prosperity of the publishing industry, theater and art world. With the crash of Wall Street in 1929 the beginning of the end started.
- The Harlem Renaissance was the foundation for future writers, musicians and artists.

Alain Locke (1886-1954)
- The New Negro
Georgia Douglas Johnson (1886-1966)
- The Heart of a Woman
- Youth
- My Little Dreams
- Lost Illusions
- I Want to Die While You Love Me
Zora Neale Hurston (1891-1960)
- Sweat
- How It Feels to Be Colored Me
- The Gilded Six-Bits
- Characteristics of Negro Expression
Jean Toomer (1894-1967)
- Cane
Rudolph Fisher (1897-1934)
- The City of Refuge
- The Caucasian Storms Harlem
Gwendolyn B. Bennett (1902-1981)
- Heritage
- To a Dark Girl
- Sonnet—2
- Hatred
Langston Hughes (1902-1967)
- The Negro Speaks of Rivers
- Mother to Son
- I Too
- Gypsy Man
- Red Silk Stockings
- Bad Man
- Song for a Dark Girl
- Harlem
Helene Johnson (1907-1995)
- Poem
- Sonnet to a Negro in Harlem
- Remember Not
- Invocation

REALISM, MODERNISM, AND NATURALISM (1940-1960)
- There is a broad range of literary activity that cannot be contained in traditional categories of genre, mode and subject. For example, writings for magazines and popular fiction.
- There are many subjects to write about: atomic explosions, fascism, World War II, social revolution.
- There is a second wave of the Great Migration from South to North.
- The Commission of Civil Right was created by Truman in 1947.
- The fall of colonialism brought the end of European domination in Africa and the establishment of independent republics.
- Desegregation of public schools.
- Richard Wright’s Native Son made him the first African American writer to achieve critical acclaim and commercial success simultaneously. He paved the way for others. Native Son was a big landmark that documented harsh realities of urban living for black Americans. It came to be regarded as “social protest”.
- From Wright’s urban realism there was a turn away toward a vision of integration as a social idea. Writers found a “non-Negro” or nonracial subject matter, where there is an absence of black characters and urban settings.
- Establishment of the American Negro Theater which was an experimental community theater in Harlem.
- This generation of writers gathered a considerable degree of public success and recognition. They opened a frontier in the future that the Harlem Renaissance generation had barely begun to perceive.

Melvin B. Tolson (1900?-1966)
- An Ex-Judge at the Bar
- Dark Symphony
- A Legend of Versailles
Dorothy West (1907-1998)
- The Living is Easy
Richard Wright (1908-1960)
- Blueprint for Negro Writing
- The Ethics of Living Jim Crow, an Autobiographical Sketch
- Long Black Song
- The Man Who Lived Underground
- Black Boy
Ann Petry (1909-1984)
- Like a Winding Sheet
- The Street
Robert Hayden (1913-1982)
- The Diver
- Homage to the Empress of the Blues
- Middle Passage
Ralph Ellison (1914-1994)
- Invisible Man
- Change the Joke and Slip the Yoke
- The World and the Jug
Margaret Walker (1915-1998)
- For My People
- Poppa Chicken
- For Malcom X
- Prophets of a New Day
Gwendolyn Brooks (b. 1917-)
- kitchenette building
- the mother
- a song in the front yard
- Sadie and Maud
- The Lovers of the Poor
- Malcom X
- Riot
James Baldwin (1924-1987)
- Everybody’s Protest Novel
- Many Thousands Gone
- Stranger in the Village
- Notes of a Native Son
- Sonny’s Blues
Lorraine Hansberry (1930-1965)
- A Raisin in the Sun

THE BLACK ARTS MOVEMENT (1960’S)
- The 1960’s was a decade of dramatic social upheaval at home, costly military engagement abroad, and black freedom struggle.
- The Nation of Islam, the leader of which was Elijah Muhammed, gained importance. Malcom X was a Minister in Temple Number 7 in Harlem.
- The Nation of Islam had its own art: Orgena, The Trial by Louis X, now Minister Louis Ferrakhan.
- Black Power: term created by Carmichael during a protest.
- African American writers sought to transform the manner in which black Americans were represented or portrayed in literature and the arts.
- Use of sermons, popular music and black “mass” speech in poetry. Verse was free, conversational, jazzy, bluesy.
- Novels and stories reflect what might be thought of as the “deep structure” of the 1960’s.
- Poetry reached all the people as it was more accessible to black readers than the full-length drama or the Great American Novel.
- Black arts turned to Africa for inspiration, wisdom and sense of black origins.
- In the 1960’s Africa became among African Americans a linguistic badge of honor: a source of artistic, intellectual and cultural pride. Although they overlooked the real situation in Africa.

Differed from the past generations of African American artistic and intellectual thought in their celebration and cultivation of a black mass audience.

New publishing ventures such as:
Dudley Randall’s Broadside Press
Chicago’s Third World Press
Washington’s Drum and Spear Press

Also new periodicals such as:
Journal of Black Poetry
Amistad
Black Books Bulletin
Soulbook
Negro Digest

Malcolm X (El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz) (1925-1965)
- The Autobiography of Malcom X
John Alfred Williams (b. 1925)
- The Man Who Cried I Am
Martin Luther King Jr. (1929-1968)
- Letter from Birmingham Jail
Amiri Baraka (b. 1934)
- Preface to a Twenty Volume Suicide Note
- In Memory of Radio
- A Poem for Black Hearts
- I don’t love you
- Black Art
- The Baptism
- The Toilet
- Dutchman
Sonia Sanchez (b. 1934)
- homecoming
- poem at thirty
- for our lady
- Summer Words of a Sistuh Addict

LITERATURE SINCE 1970
Critical trends that distinguished the 1960s from the 1970s:

1. The remapping of African American cultural and social history
2. The exploration of African American folk forms
3. The attention to African American women as writers both creative and scholarly, an attention demanded by their presence in every literary genre
4. The acknowledgment of the multiplicity of African American identities
5. The increased participation of African Americans in framing the study of American Literature

Albert Murray (b. 1916)
- Tran Whistle Guitar
Maya Angelou (b. 1928)
- Still I Rise
- My Arkansas
- I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings
Adrienne Kennedy (b. 1931)
- A Movie Star Has to Star in Black and White
Toni Morrison (b. 1933)
- Sula
- Beloved
June Johnson (b. 1936)
- In Memoriam: Martin Luther King, Jr.
- I Must Become a Menace to My Enemies
- Poem about My Rights
Ernest J. Gaines (b. 1933)
- The Sky is Gray
Al Young (b. 1939)
- A Dance for Ma Rainey
- Conjugal Visits
- The Seduction of Light
Sherley Anne Williams (b. 1944)
- The Peacock Poems: 1
- I Want Aretha to Set This to Music
- Tell Martha Not to Moan
Alice Walker (b. 1944)
- Women
- Outcast
- On Stripping Bark from Myself
- Everyday Use
- Advancing Luna—and Ida B. Wells
- The Color Purple
August Wilson (b. 1945)
- Fences
Wanda Coleman (b. 1946)
- Emmett Till
- Today I Am a Homicide in the North of the City
Yusef Komunyakaa (b. 1947)
- February in Sydney
- Facing it
- Neon Vernacular
Jamaica Kincaid (b. 1949)
- Annie John
Gloria Naylor (b. 1950)
- The Women of Brewster Place
- Mama Day
- Bailey’s Café
- Linden Hills
Rita Dove (b. 1952)
- Parsley
- Receiving the Stigmata

Bibliography
Gates Jr., Henry Louis, and McKay, Nellie Y., eds. The Norton Anthology of African American Literature. New York; W. W. Norton and Company, Inc., 1997.
Mullane, Deirdre, ed. Crossing the Danger Water. New York; Anchor Books, 1993.
Turner, Darwin T., ed. Black American Literature. Columbus, Ohio; Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1970.

Literary Handbooks, Dictionaries, and Encyclopedias
Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History. Ed. Jack Salzman, David Lionel Smith, and Cornel West, 5 vols. New York: Macmillan Library Reference; London: Simon, 1996.
The Oxford Companion of African American Literature, ed. William L. Andrews, Frances Smith Foster, and Trudier Harris (New York: Oxford UP, 1997, 866p.)

Guides to Primary Works
Dictionary Catalog of the Schomburg Collection of Negro Literature and History. 9 vols. Boston: Hall, 1962.
Bibliographic Guide to Black Studies [1975- ]. Detroit: Gale, 1976- .

Jordan, Casper LeRoy, Comp. A Bibliographical Guide to African-American Women Writers.
Bibliographies and Indexes in Afro-American and African Studies 31. Westport: Greenwood, 1993.
Kallenback, Jessamine S., comp. Index to Black American Literary Anthologies. Boston: Hall, 1979.
Schatz, Walter, ed. Directory of Afro-American Resources. New York: Bowker, 1970.

Guides to Scholarship and Criticism
Inge, M. Thomas, Maurice Duke, and Jackson R. Bryer, eds. Black American Writers; Bibliographical Essays. 2 vols. New York: St. Martin’s, 1978.

Other Bibliographies
Perry, Margaret. The Harlem Renaissance: An Annotated Bibliography and Commentary.
Garland Reference Library of the Humanities 278: Critical Studies on Black Life and Culture 2. New York: Garland, 1982.
Turner, Darwin T. comp. Afro-American Writers. Goldentree Bibliographies in Language and Literature. New York: Appleton, 1970.

American Studies Field Report (download timeline and bibliography)

Kelly Cameron
Engl. 760
Professor Aune
7 October 2003

Timeline:
1930s- American Studies emerges as a discipline.
1947- Salzburg Seminar founded by Harvard graduate students and faculty.
1949- American Heritage and American Quarterly journals appear.
1950s- American Studies emerges as an academic study.
1951- American Studies Association forms.
1960s- Civil rights movement; American Studies begins to look at the history, culture and experiences of groups invisible to scholars in the after WWII: women, racial and ethnic minorities, workers, gays and lesbians.

What is American Studies?
In general terms, it’s the study of “us.” American Studies is an interdisciplinary study of American life, from a multi-disciplinary perspective. It grew out of the study of history, art and political science, but became its own branch of academic study in the 1950’s. The post-WWII, Cold War- era created a U.S.-glorifying, isolationist slant in the way American Studies was taught. Some courses were even called American Civilization. Yet others say that American Studies began in the 1930’s as a radical reaction to industrial capitalism. Still others say that American Studies didn’t really begin until the 1960s. So to pinpoint the actual birthdate of the discipline is difficult.

What do American Studies scholars study?
This is probably a short list: history, literature, arts, social sciences, technology, and popular culture. Many specialize in diverse areas: jazz, colonial America, television sitcoms, dance, film....

Careers in American Studies
What is positive about majoring or studying American Studies is that a student can focus on his or her own interests. For example, studying how Starbucks has changed urban and suburban landscapes would not fit into an English department, but would fit neatly into American Studies.
However, it can be difficult to land a job with a B.A. in American Studies; it almost always seems to require graduate study. American Studies majors often to graduate study in Library Science, if they don’t pursue graduate study in American Studies. Museum curatorship is another attractive field for American Studies students.

How does American Studies fit into universities?
At some universities, American Studies is a department on its own. Two high profile examples, Georgetown University and the University of Virginia. At NDSU, American Studies is part of the English Department. At MSUM, American Studies is its own department. American studies can also be attached to history or political science departments.
There is some debate on whether American Studies should be an independent department. Some say it further institutionalizes, and isolates, a field that depends on different fields for its existence.

Does the ‘American’ in American Studies always mean the United States?
In most cases, yes. There are, however, people who study South American relations or the relationship between Canada and the United States. There is also a thriving international community of American Studies departments and scholars. At least in the — admittedly very limited — amount of literature I’ve read, Japan seems to play a major role in American Studies abroad.

What are the different branches of American Studies?
American Studies scholars specialize in many different areas. Asian American Studies, African American Studies and Latin American Studies all fit under the American Studies umbrella. While American Studies scholars often study feminism or gender roles, Women’s Studies and Gender Studies are considered separate disciplines.

How does American Studies differ from cultural studies?
Cultural Studies is overtly political, seeking to topple hierarchies. American Studies scholars don’t have to be activists, but can be. And American Studies differs from British Studies in that it tends to focus on race and gender, while British Studies tends to focus on the class system.

Resources on the Web
• Crossroads at www.georgetown.edu/crossroads/asw
• American Studies program at University of Virginia at xroads.virginia.edu
• Latin American Studies Association at llasa.international.pitt.edu
• Ralph J. Bunche Center for African American Studies at www.bunchecenter.ucla.edu
• American Studies Today Online at www.americansc.org.uk
• Center for Canadian Studies at Duke University at www.duke.edu/web/northamer
• Center for Canadian-American Studies at Western Washington University at www.ac.wwu.edu/~canam

Bibliography

Griffin, Larry J. and Maria Tempenis. “Class, Multiculturalism and the American Quarterly.” American Quarterly 54.1 (2002). 67-90.

Inge, M. Thomas. Handbook of American Popular Culture v. 1-3. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press Inc., 1978.

Luedtke, Luther S. ed. Making America: The Society and Culture of the United States. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1991.

MacPhail, Scott. “Lyric Nationalism: Whitman, American Studies, and the New Criticism.” Texas Studies in Literature and Language 44.2 (2002). 133-160.

May, Elaine Tyler. “The Radical Roots of American Studies: Presidential Address to the American Studies Association.” American Quarterly 48.2 (1996). 179-200.

Peterson, Debra. Personal interview. 6 October 2003.

Sumida, Stephen H. “East of California: Points of Origin in Asian American Studies.” American Quarterly 1.1 (1998). 83-100.

Tallack, Douglas. Twentieth-Century America: The Intellectual and Cultural Context. Essex, England: Longman Group UK Limited, 1991.

Film and Media Studies (download the outline and bibliography)

Laure Séguéla
October 14, 2003

A- Definition

• Film and Media Studies are closely related, if not a part of, Cultural Studies. Like Cultural Studies, Film and Media Studies draws from different fields: anthropology, sociology, “lit crit,” Marxism…
• Film Studies are the studies of “the moving image.” Media Studies focus on newspapers, magazines, radio and television shows, Internet and video games.
• They can be easily associated.
1. They share part of their fields—Media Studies includes the study of television, and video games, and both of them enter the category of “moving image.”
2. Both films and media texts* are constructions of the mind that need to be de-constructed and maybe deciphered in order to be totally understood.
• The film or media text creator may be motivated by different purposes—information, entertainment, persuasion—, yet all texts have to be apprehended the same way: as constructions.
• Film and Media Studies are more and more influenced by post-modernism—fact that no explanation can take authority, exploration of extremes and challenge of limits, or attempt to integrate life and art in “pop-culture…”

B- The Evolution of Two Key Concepts in Film and Media Studies

• Notion of Audience: Effect models, “i.e. theoretical explanations of how humans ingest the information transmitted by media texts and how this might influence (or not) their behavior” (Mediaknowall.com).
1. The Hypodermic Needle—or Syringe—Model:
• 1920s
• Passive audience
• Heterogeneous audience
• Unmediated information.
2. Two-Step Flow:
• 1940s
• Also known as, “limited effects paradigm”
• Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet
• Information flows first to “opinion leaders” then moves on to the audience through those opinion leaders. Two steps taken.
3. Uses and Gratifications:
• 1960s
• Audiences made of individuals
• Active audience
• List of the different functions of media texts – created in 1948 by Lasswell and further developed by Blulmer and Katz in 1974: diversion, personal relationships, personal identity and surveillance.
4. Reception Theory:
• 1980s
• Also known as “preferred reading”
• audience is varied - individual characteristics—gender, class, age— and circumstances change

• Cultural Effects of Media and Cinema on Society: Because media texts and movies have an effect on individuals, theorists have considered that they might as well have an effect on society as a whole and be used accordingly.
1. The Frankfurt School-A Marxist/Radical/Critical Approach:
• Left-wing critique
• Media: vehicle of ideology and manipulation tool for the dominant class.
• To Adorno and Horkheimer, control of the media by the dominant class leads to a “totally administered society,” produces the end of the individual and encourages conformity.
2. The American Empiricist Tradition/The Pluralist Approach:
• Society is a complex of competing groups, none of them dominating the others.
• Media are highly autonomous, be it from the state or from any other pressure groups.
• Fourth estate – media, as a fourth power, keeps a watchful eye on politics or economics…
• Audiences are not seen as manipulated by the media. Equal terms relationship
3. The Leavisites in Great Britain:
• Non-empirical approach initiated by British literary critics, Frank and Queenie Leavis.
• Only salvation from mass culture as lying in the 'Great Tradition' of Shakespeare, Donne, Wordsworth, Keats and so on.

Bibliography

Introductions to Media and Film Studies’ Criticism

• Bittner, John R. Mass Communication: an Introduction. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentic Hall, 1977.
• Cinema: Beginnings and Future. Ed. Christopher Williams
• Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings. Eds. Leo Braudy, Marshall Cohen.
• Lunde, Erik S., and Douglas A. Noverr. Film Studies.
• Lunde, Erik S., and Douglas A. Noverr. Film History.
• Phillips, Patrick. Understanding Film Texts: Meaning and Experience.
• Stam, Robert. Film Theory: An Introduction. Malden: Blackwell Publishers Inc., 2000.
• The Cinema Book. Eds. Pam Cook and Mieke Bernink
• Willemen, Paul. Looks and Frictions: Essays in Cultural Studies and Film Theory. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
• Wollen, Peter. Signs and Meaning in the Cinema.

More Criticism

• Adorno, T.W. and Hanns Eisler. Composing for the Films. New York: Oxford University Press, 1969.
• Adorno, T.W. and Max Horkheimer. The Dialectic of Enlightenment. Trans John Cummings. New York: Verso, 1997.
• Cherchi Usai, Paolo. Silent Cinema: An Introduction
• De Certeau, Michel. The Practice of Everyday Life. Trans. Steven Rendall. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Hollywood and Europe Economics, Culture, National Identity 1945-95. Eds. Geoffrey Nowell-Smith and Stephen Ricci
• Hollywood Spectatorship Changing Perceptions of Cinema Audiences. Eds. Melvyn Stokes and Richard Maltby.
• Identifying Hollywood's Audiences Cultural Identity and the Movies. Eds. Melvyn Stokes and Richard Maltby.
• Movie Mutations: The Changing Face of World Cinephilia. Eds. Jonathan Rosenbaum and Adrian Martin.
• Rees, A.L. History of Experimental Film and Video.
• Shary, Timothy. “Looks and Frictions: Essays in Cultural Studies and Film Theory, a Book Review.” Film Quarterly, Fall 1995 v.49 n.1, p.53-56.

Scholarly Publications

Cinema Journal
Film and History – an Interdisciplinary Journal on Film and Television Studies
Film Criticism
Film Quarterly
Literature/Film Quarterly

World Wide Web Links

American Communication Association - http://www.americancomm.org/
American Film Institute Online - http://www.afi.com/
Russian Association for Film and Media Education - http://www.mediaeducation.boom.ru/
Society for Cinema Studies - http://www.cinemastudies.org/about
British Film Institute - http://www.bfi.org.uk/
American Communication Association - Mass Media and Culture - http://www.americancomm.org/studies/mediaculture.html
Media Awareness Network/Réseau Éducation Médias - http://www.media-awareness.ca/
Mediaknowall, a Web Guide for Media Students - http://www.mediaknowall.com/

Poetry (download the outline and bibliography)

Josh Hernandez
Dr. Aune
English 760
25 September 2003

I. What is poetry?
A. In the beginning…
1. Performance, Communal, Oral, Aural
B. Written component
C. Visual component

II. How did poetry get where it is today (mostly in the U.S.)?
A. Early Precursors
1. Walt Whitman
2. Emily Dickinson
3. Symbolism-supremecy of idea over fact, producing organic from what appeared fragmentary
a. Charles Baudelaire (who was influenced by Edgar Alan Poe)
b. Early W. B. Yeats (Ezra Pound)
B. Modernism-reality of the objective world is fundamentally called into question
1. Imagism-Hilda Doolittle, Ezra Pound
2. Vorticism-Ezra Pound
3. “The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot
4. Anti “literary” poetry-William Carlos Williams
5. New Religion of Poetry-Wallace Stevens
6. Harlem Renaissance-Claude McKay, Jean Toomer, Countee Cullen, Langston Huges
C. Post WWII Poetry
1. Meditative poetry-Randall Jarrel, Richard Eberhard, Karl Shapiro
2. Metephysical wit and irony-Theodore Roethke, Robert Lowell, John Berryman
3. University poets-Elizabeth Bishop, Richard Wilbur, Howard Nemerov, Josephine Miles, Louis Simpson, Anthony Hecht, John Hollander
4. Black Mountain Poets-Robert Creeley, Robert Duncan, Denise Levertov, A.R. Ammons
5. Beat Poets-Allen Ginsberg, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Kenneth Rexroth, Robert Duncan, Gary Snyder
6. New York School-Frank O’Hara, John Ashbery, Kenneth Koch,
7. Surrealism-Pablo Neruda, Cesar Vallejo, Robert Bly, James Wright, W.S. Merwin, Mark Strand, Diane wakoski
8. Confessional Poets-Robert Lowell, John Berryman, Theodore Roethke, Sylvia Plath, Anne Sexton, Adrienne Rich
9. African American Poetry-Gwendolyn Brooks, LeRoi Jones (Imamu Amiri Baraka), Audre Lorde
10. Regionalism-Carolyn Forche, Gary Soto, Rita Dove, Cathy Song, David Wagoner

III. Where is Contemporary American Poetry Heading?
A. Emphasis on oral aspect-less regard to tradition
1. Nuyorican Poets-Miguel Pinero, Ntozake Shange, Piri Thomas
Maggie Estep, Nicole Breedlove, Mike Tyler, Reg E. Gains,
Edwin Torres, Paul Beatty, Jimmy Santiago Baca
2. Poetry Slams
B. New Formalists-Julia Alverez, Raphael Campo, Dana Gioia, R.S. Gwynn, Marilny
Hacker, Andrew Hudgins, Charles Martin, Molly Peacock, Wyatt
Prunty, Timothy Steele

IV. How does a poem mean? (Handout of common terms)

V. Types of Poetry
Ballad Tanka
Ballade Tercet
Blank Verse Terza Rima
Couplet Triolet
Double Dactyl Villanelle
Dramatic Monologue
Epic
Epigram Open Form/Free Verse
Fugue
Ghazal Prose Poetry
Haiku
Limerick Visual Poetry/Concrete Poetry
Octet
Ode
Pantoum
Renga
Roundel
Roundelay
Quatrain
Quintet
Rubaiyat
Sapphics
Septet
Sestet
Sestina
Sonnet
-Curtal
-English/Shakespearan
-Itiallian
- Petrarchan
-Spenserian

Selected Bibliography

Textbooks
Ciardi, John, and Miller Williams. How Does a Poem Mean? Second Edition. Houghton Mifflin: Boston, 1975.
Ellman, Richard, and Robert O’Clair ed. The Norton Anthology of Modern Poetry Second Edition. W. W. Norton & Company: New York, 1988.
Kennedy, X. J., and Dana Gioia. An Introduction to Poetry 10th Edition. Pearson Longman, 2001.
Nims, John Frederick. Western Wind an Introduction to Poetry. 4th Edition. McGraw Hill, 2000.
Strand, Mark, and Eavan Boland ed. The Making of a Poem: The Norton Anthology of Poetic Forms. W. W. Norton & Company: New York, 2001.

African American Poetry
French, William P., et al. Afro-American Poetry and Drama, 1760—1975. Detroit: Gale, 1979.
Sherman, Joan R. Invisible Poets: Afro-Americans of the Nineteenth Century. Urbana: U of Illinois, 1989.
Wagner, Jean. Black Poets of the United States: From Paul Laurence Dunbar to Langston Hughes. Trans. Kenneth Douglas. Urbana: U of Illinois, 1973.
Columbia Granger’s Index to African American Poetry. Ed. Nicholas Frankovich and David Larzelere. New York: Columbia UP, 1999.

Literary Handbooks, Dictionaries, and Encyclopedias
New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. Ed. Alex Preminger and t.V.F Brogan. Princeton: Princeton, 1993.
Deutch, Babette. Poetry Handbook: A Dictionary and Handbook of Poetry. New York: Longman, 1985.
Myers, Jack, and Michael Simms. Longman Dictionary and Handbook of Poetry. New York: Longman, 1985.
Turco, Lewis. The Book of Forms: A Handbook of Poetics. 3rd ed. Hanover: New England, 2000.
Williams, Miller. Patterns of Poetry: An Encyclopedia of Forms. Baton Rouge: LA, 1886.

Guides to Primary Works
Colombia Granger’s Index to Poetry in Anthologies (Granger’s Index). Ed. Nicholas Frankovich. 11th ed. New York: Columbia, 1998.
Columbia Granger’s World of Poetry. Online. http://www.columbiagrangers.org

Guides to Scholarship and Criticism
Coleman, Arthur. Epic and Romance Criticism. 2 vols. Searingtown: Watermill, 1973.
Donow, Herbert S., comp. The Sonnet in England and America: A Bibliography of Criticism. Westport: Greenwood, 1982.
Kuntz, Joseph M., and nancy C. Martinez. Poetry Explication: A checlist of Interpretation since 1925 of British and American Poems Past and Present. Boston: Hall, 1980.
Ruppert, James. Guide to American Poetry Explication, vol. 1: Colonial and Nineteenth Centruy. Hall: New York, 1989.
Leo Hohn R. Guide to American Poetry Explication, vol. 2: Modern and Contemporary. Hall: New York, 1989.
Martinez, Nancy C., and Joseph G.R. Martinez. Guide to British Poetry Explication, vol. 1: Old English—Medieval. Hall: New York, 1991.
_____. Guide to British Poetry Explication, vol. 2: Renaissance. Hall: New York, 1992.
Martinez, Nancy C., and Joseph G.R. Martinez, and Earl Anderson. Guide to British Poetry Explication, vol. 3: Restoration-Romantic. Hall: New York, 1993.
_____. Guide to British Poetry Explication, vol. 4: Victorian-Contemporary. Hall: New York, 1995.

Suggested Reading for New Formalism
Bruce Bawer. Prophets and Professors. Story Line Press, 1995.
Philip Dacey and David Jauss, eds. Strong measures: Contemporary American Poetry in Traditional Forms. Harper and Row, 1986.
Ariel Dawson, “The Yuppie Poet.” AWP. Newsletter. May 1985.
Tom Disch, The Castle of Indolence, Picador, 1995.
Wayne Dodd, Toward the End of the Century. University of iowa Press, 1992.
Frederick Feirstein, ed. (With Frederick Turner), Expanseive Poetry. Story Line Press, 1989.
Annie Finch, ed., A Formal Feeling Comes:Poems in Form by contemporary Women. Story Line Press, 1989.
_____. Beyond the New Formalism. Story Line Press, 1997.
Dana Gioia, Can Poetry Matter? Graywolf Press, 1991.
Paul Lake, “Toward a Liberal Poetics.” Threepenny Review. Winter 1988.
_____. “Verse that Print Bred.” Sewanee Review. Fall 1992.
David Lehman, ed., Estatic Occassions, Expedient Forms. Macmillan, 1987.
Brad Leithause, “Metrical Illiteracy.” New Criterion. January 1983.
_____. “The Confinement of Free Verse.” New Criterion. May 1987.
Keith Maillard, “The New Formalism and the Return of Prosody.” Antigonish Review. Winter 1995.
James McCorkle, ed., Conversant Essays: Contemporary Poets on Poetry. Wayne State University Press, 1990.
Jarman, Mark, and David Mason ed., Rebel Angels. Story Line Press, 1996.
Robert McDowell, “The Poetry Anthology.” The Hudson Review. Winter 1990.
Robert McDowell, ed., Poetry After Modernism. Story Line Press, 1990.
Wade Newman, “An Interview with Frederick Turner.” Soutwest Review. Summer 1986.
Wyatt Prunty, Fallen From the Symboled World: Precedents for the New Formalism. Oxford, 1990.
Robert Richman, ed., The Direction of Poetry. Houghton Mifflin, 1988.
Ira Sadoff, “Neo Formalism: A Dangerous Nostalgia.” American Poetry Review. January— February1990.
Timothy Steele, Missing Mesures: Modern Poetry and the Revolt Against Meter. University of Arkansas Press, 1990.
Frederick Turner, Natural Classicism. Paragon House, 1985.
Diane Wakoski, “The New Conservatism in American Poetry.” American Book Review. May— June1986.
David Wojahn, “’Yes, But . . .’: Some Thoughts on the New Formalism.” Crazyhorse. Spring 1987.

Anthologies of Contemporary Poetry
http://www.evanston.lib.il.us/library/bibliographies/verse.html

Cindy Nichols’ Online Guide to Poetry/Creative Writing Resources
http://www.ndsu.nodak.edu/instruct/cinichol/Writer%27sLink/Writer%27sLink/index.htm

Other Online Resources
http://libraries.mit.edu/guides/subjects/literature/poetry.html

WHERE EXPERIENCE STARTS

image-a piece of news from the world outside or from our own bodies which is brought into the light of consciousness through one of the senses.
concrete-an image presented to the consciousness as a bodily sensation
abstract-ideas stripped of physical detail
simile-from Latin: alike--a comparison using 'like' or 'as'
metaphor-from Latin: transfer--a direct comparison transferring to one thing the identity of
something else that we associate with it
mixed metaphor- a metaphor made up of components that do not go together
ex. People who skate on thin ice are likely to find themselves in hot water.
analogy- any resemblance, in form or function, between otherwise unlike objects. A kind of
reasoning based on metaphor.
synesthesia- from Greek: blended feeling--perception or interpretation of the data of one sense in terms of another.
ex. The [tenor's] high quavers
That hold like splashes of light on the dark water
allusion- incomplete reference to something that those who share our knowledge or background will understand
personification-attributing human characteristics to non-human things

THE USE OF SYMBOL

synecdoche- from Greek: ~taking as a whole-a part that represents a whole
ex. He stood among a crowd at Dromahair; His heart hung all upon a silken dress
metonymy- referring to one thing by using the name of something associated with it
ex. Scepter and crown
Must tumble down,
And in the dust be equal made
With the poor crooked scythe and spade.
symbol- an image that stands for more than it denotes literally
dinggedichte- "thing poems"- a poem that seems to be a description of an object, offering a basis for a symbolic reading
allegory- narrative in which characters and events stand for ideas and interactions on another level.

ANTIPOETRY

"Avoiding use of images that are conventionally pretty, and for that reason, overused in the middling poems of the past." (Nims 69)

paradox- statement that seems to imply a contradiction
oxymoron- linking, in one syntactical unit, words that seem to cancel each other out
irony- stating something by saying another quite different thing, sometimes its opposite
withheld image- implied image that the readers must complete for themselves
litote- understatement asserting truth by denying its opposite
ex. "Not bad!" in reference to a good cup of coffee
hyperbole- from Greek: throwing beyond the mark- overstatement to reinforce meaning

EMOTIONS: THE COLOR OF THOUGHT
Archetypal image- patternings whose unconscious charge can stir and disturb us
ex. birth, love, guilt, death, rebirth, etc.
sentimentality- emotion in excess of its object, emotion gone out of control and taking over

THE WORDS: THE MACHINE FOR MAGIC
cliché- expressions that have lost meaning from overuse
connotation- ideas, emotions, images, that a word suggests
denotation- literal (dictionary) meaning of a word

THE SOUNDS
vowels- in general high frequency vowels go well with expressions of excitement, exhilaration,
and vivacity (c.f. Do Not Go Gentle into that Good Night). Low frequency vowels often
evoke what is slow, awesome, powerful, ominous, or gloomy.

low frequency---------------------------------------------------------------------------------high frequency
boo bone book bought boy bough bar bud bird bat bet bit buy bay bee

assonance- repetition of vowel sounds
alliteration- repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words or syllables a few notes on consonant sounds
'w' and 'y'- most vowel like consonants, 'w' alliterates smoothly with its 'oo' sound
'r'-very similar to a vowel, dark throaty (growl) quality, "the dog's letter." Also a liquid
'l'- liquid sound, flows around tongue instead of being popped or hissed forth. Often called the
"prettiest" vowel sound
'm,' 'n,' 'ng'- nasal consonants. 'm' can be soothing sound/hum. 'n' is more of a whine than a hum,
'ng' has a metallic resonance that qualifies it for many sound words: bang, boing, bong,
clang, gong, jangle, ping, ring, etc.
h, f, c, th, dh, s, z, sh, zh-fricative: audible friction over something that interferes with airflow from the lungs
'f,' 'v'- often pleasingly soft, but not necessarily so
's'- hissing sound, often displeasing to poets
'sn'- many unpleasant words use 'sn' ex. snag, snitch, snoop, sniff, sneeze, snub, snort, etc.
'st'- many words beginning with 'st' are strong and stead.
'str'- muscular sound. ex. strain, strength, strangle, struggle, strike, strive, etc.
'sh'- less sharp, but more body than the 's.' Often used as white noise to overpower other sounds
'p,' 'b,' 't,' 'd,' 'k,' 'g'- stops, plosives, explosives
'p,' and 'b' are the most forceful consonant sounds, their alliteration calls instant attention to itself
't' and 'd' create a sense of neat, trim, cut off words
'k' or 'g'- provide very throaty sound when combined with 'r'

DEVICES OF SOUND
onomatopoeia- from Greek: name making- verbal representation of sound
rhyme- sameness plus a difference in the sound of two words
1. The sameness is an accented vowel sound.
2. Sounds coming after the accented vowel sound must be the same
3. The difference, is what comes before the accented vowel sound
end rhyme- rhymes occurring at the ends of lines in a poem
internal rhyme- rhymes occurring within a line of poetry
off rhyme- slant rhyme, oblique rhyme, near rhyme, half rhyme-rhymes that almost follow the first two rules of rhyme. ex. June / men, June / mean, June / moan
consonance- words that have the same consonant sounds, but different vowel sounds. Usually the second word drops to a deeper vowel sound.
ex. blade / blood, flash / flesh

THE RHYTHMS
meter- a poems basic scheme of accented and unaccented syllables
rhythm- the way words in a poem move, often coinciding with the meter but sometimes not
repetition- repeating of words of phrases

end stopped lines- lines concluding with a pause, generally marked by punctuation
run-on lines- lines that carry over into the next line without a pause
enjambment- the rhythmical effect of run-on lines
caesura- the pause that tends to fall near the middle of most lines.

syllable stress- accounting for the number of syllables and placement of stresses in a line of poetry
foot- unit whose repetition makes up any rhythm
iamb- foot consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable
pyrrhic- foot with two unaccented syllables
spondee- foot with two accented syllables
trochee- a foot with an accented syllable followed by an unaccented syllable
anapest- foot with two unaccented syllables followed by one accented syllable
dactyl- foot with one accented syllable followed by two unaccented syllables
tribrach- foot with three unaccented syllables
molossos- foot with three accented syllables

monometer- poems with one foot per line
dimeter- two feet per line
trimeter- three feet per line
tetrameter- four feet per line (most common after pentameter)
pentameter- five feet per line (most common)
hexameter- six feet per line (iambic hexameter is Alexandrine)
heptameter- seven feet per line
octameter- eight feet per line

strong-stress- system that counts only the number of accents, disregarding the number of syllables
ex. "rough roads, rock-strewn" is equal to "due to the ruthlessness of the rumorings, due to the Peruvians' incommunicability"
sprung rhythm- similar to strong stress rhythm patterns, often times accents directly follow one
another forcing a word out of its proper position (c.f. Gerard Manley Hopkins)
syllabic meter- system that counts only the number of syllables, disregarding the number of accents
free verse- each line of a poem has its own natural rhythm rather than depending on a particular meter
variable foot- each line is viewed as a single foot (c.f. William Carlos Williams)
spatial/visual prosody- positioning of words on the page, indicating the breath, pauses, and the suspension of even syllables

THE SHAPE OF THOUGHT: WE GO A-SENTENCING
parataxis- setting objects, persons, or situations side by side without using connectives to
indicate the logical relationship between them
parallelism- a kind of rhythm giving corresponding parts of sentences corresponding
expressions
chiasmus- parallel elements that "crisscross"
ex. I like football; baseball I hate
antithesis- parallelism that emphasizes conflicting materials by setting them sharply together
inversion- reversal of the normal (according to spoken speech) word order
parenthesis- interrupting the conventional order of syntax in the interests of fidelity to thought
anacoluthon- (not following) when impulse or better thought cancels what we were about to say
aposiopesis- falling silent, abruptly cutting off a thought

FIXED STANZA FORMS
blank verse- unrhymed iambic pentameter
stanzas- identical units of groups of lines
couplets- units of two lines
tercet- three line stanzas
quatrain- four line stanza
ballad stanza- quatrains with alternating lines of iambic tetrameter and iambic trimeter
and with an rhyme scheme of either a b a b or x a x a
Burn's stanza/Scottish stanza- six line stanzas of a a a b a b, in which the a's are tetrameter,
and the b's are dimeter.
rhyme royal- seven line stanzas with the rhyme scheme: a b a b b c c
c.f. The Shield of Achilles
ottava rima- eight line stanzas of iambic pentameter and rhyme scheme of a b a b a b c c
c.f. Don Juan
spensarian stanza- nine line stanza, the first 8 are iambic pentameter, the ninth is an
alexandrine. The rhyme scheme is a b a b b c b c c
c.f. The Faerie Queen

Drama (download pdf of outline and bibliography)

Laure Séguéla
October 9, 2003

I. What is Drama?
• A dictionary’s definition: A composition, in prose or poetry, accommodated to action, and intended to exhibit a picture of human life, or to depict a series of grave or humorous actions of more than ordinary interest, tending toward some striking result. It is commonly designed to be spoken and represented by actors on the stage. < http://www.hyperdictionary.com/dictionary/drama>
• Aristotle’s view: Aristotle’s theatrical critique Poetics states that there are six elements necessary for drama. They are Plot, Character, Idea, Language, Music, and Spectacle.

II. Origins of Drama and Early Developments
A. Egypt – First passion play, telling the story of Osiris’ murder. C. 2000 BC
B. Greece – Drama associated with the cult of Dionysus, god of wine and fertility.
1. Tragedies
a. “Tragedy depicts the downfall of a noble hero of heroine, usually through some combination of hubris, fate and the will of gods.” Note that the hero is a balanced character who only falls because of a mistake. <http://faculty.gvsu.edu/websterm/ tragedy.htm. >
b. During Great Dionyssa
c. Dithyramb – song or chant performed by a group of men—the chorus—disguised as satires—goat-skins and masks
d. 534 BC, Thepsis added the 1st hypokrites—Greek word for “answerer”—who is in fact the first actor. Aeschylus (525-456 BC – wrote The Oresteia) added the second, and Sophocles (496-406 BC – wrote Oedipus Rex) the third hypokrites.
2. Satirical Drama
a. During winter festival – Small Dionyssa
b. Dependent on topical humor and satire
c. Aristophanes (448-380BC) - Menander (342-292 BC)

C. Rome
• “play” = ludus, recreation
a. Fabula Palliata translations or imitations of Greek plays into Latin - Terence (190-159 BC)
b. Fabula Togata were coarse native plays based on more broadly farcical situations and humor of physical nature – low comedy appealed to the masses – Plautus (c. 250-184 BC)
c. Fabula Atellana 3rd century BC – largely improvised plays based on everyday situations and mythology. Many times one character would mime as another narrated. It had four principle characters, each with a fixed costume and mask: Pappos, a silly old man, Bucco, a comic know-it-all, Maccus, the fool, and Dossenus, a sly hunchback.
D. Middle-Ages
• Jongleurs and itinerant street players
• Church plays
a. Enactments of the Nativity/passion of Christ – in church with priest as actors
b. Passion plays, Miracle plays and morality plays – out of the church – laymen in the acting—As those were long and dull, “interludes” that were “nothing more nor less than slapstick farces as a rule more distinguished for their vulgarity than their humor” (Fort & Kates 8). Subject: sex or digestion…

III. An Overview of some Major Movements in Drama
A. Commedia Dell’Arte - Italy - 16th century
• The 1st troup appeared in 1545 in Tuscany. Material motivation for the actors: acted because had to make a living—meaning of Arte.
• The plays were peopled of stock characters and were improvisations based on fixed scenarios. Lazzi – interruptions of plot
• Most famous actor: Maphio de Rei, aka Zanini. Created the character of Arlecchino.
• Developed in France because of a greater Freedom there.
B. Elizabethan Theatre – 16th-17th c.
• Shakespeare (1564-1616) and Contemporaries: Ben Jonson (1572-1637) – Every man in his Humor (1598); Christopher Marlowe (1564-1596) - Tamburlaine, Dr. Faustus, The Jew of Malta; Thomas Kyd (1558-1594)- The Spanish Tragedy (1589), Cornelia (1594); George Chapman, John Marston, Thomas Dekker, Thomas Heywood, Thomas Middleton
• Emphasis on dialogue versus performance – Plays still had a moralistic tone
• General characteristics of plays
1. Early point of attack
2. Several lines of actions (subplots), independent at first, then somehow merge together – unity in apparent diversity (King Lear is a perfect example).
3. Large number and variety of incidents; mixing of tears and laughter; gentle and violent passions
4. Time and space used freely – a sense of ongoing life behind the scenes
5. Large range and number of characters; 30 is common; rich and poor, all individuals
6. Varied language: elegant, ribald, witty, prosaic; all to enhance character and action
7. Subjects from many sources (mythology, history, legend, fiction, plays) but reworked to become his own
C. English Restoration – 17th c.
• Serious theater: heroic tragedy, love and honor, love against honor
• Comic plays: comedies of manners – satire, sexuality, shrewdness LIBERTINISM – plot not so important, just a frame for the characters
• women on stage because no trained boys available
• substantial props, machinery for technical effects
• topic: contemporary society
• fashionable clothes
• End of 17th century, reaction from New English middle-class—merchants with parvenu and fairly moral attitudes
D. French 17th and 18th c. – Racine, Molière and Hugo
• Racine (1639-1699) – French playwright – tragedies – “classical perfection”
• Molière (1622-1673) – wrote what could look like “slapstick comedies steeped in the well-established farcical tradition, aiming to please, if not to flatter the coarser taste of the audience” (Vinaver 46) Yet, lowbrow and highbrow, just a “question of dosage”
• Victor Hugo and the Romantic Drama. Reaction movement, opposition between the classics and the moderns.
1. Manifesto: Preface of Hugo’s Cromwell
2. plot no longer Greek or Roman but drawn from recent national history
3. No more unity of time or of place – disregard for and rejection of any existing convention

IV. Drama in the United States
A. Traditional Resistance to Drama
• Puritan heritage
• Authors’ disdain for dramatic writing
• Difficulties of staging—for a long time, no theatres in the United States
B. A Chronology of early American Drama
• 1665 - 1st play. Ye Bear and Ye Cub – produces in a pub in Virginia – accused of blasphemy – taken to court- judge asked to see it and judged it ENTERTAINING
• 1690 - 1st play written by a Native of this country, Benjamin Colman. Gustavus Vasa
• 1714 – 1st play printed. Farce. Androborus, by Robert Hunter. It was never intended for stage production
• 1761 – 1st American printed play to be acted. It had only two characters. An Exercise Containing a Dialogue and Ode Sacred to the Memory of George II
• 1765 – 1st play acted by professional players. The Prince of Parthia, by Thomas Godfrey
• 1st female American playwright. Charlotte Lennox. Wrote Philander, a Dramatic Pastoral in 1748, and The Sister in 1769.
• 1776 – 1st play translated into a foreign language
C. American Dramatists of the 20th Century
• Edward Albee 1928-
1. Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1961-62, Tony Award)
2. Quotations From Chairman Mao Tse-Tung (1968)
3. A Delicate Balance (1966, Pulitzer Prize)
4. Seascape (1974, Pulitzer Prize)
5. Three Tall Women (1991, Pulitzer Prize)
• Lorraine Hansberry (1930-1965)
1. A Raisin in the Sun (1959) – 1st drama by a black woman produced in Broadway
• Arthur Miller (1915-)
1. All My Songs (1947)
2. The Crucible (1953 Tony Award)
3. Death of a Salesman (1949 Pullitzer Prize)
• Eugene O'Neill (1888-1953)
1. Beyond the Horizon (1920 Pullitzer Prize)
2. Anna Christie (1922 Pullitzer Prize)
3. Strange Interlude (1928 Pullitzer Prize)
4. Long Day's Journey Into Night (1957 Pullitzer Prize)
• Neil Simon (1927- ) Wrote for television
1. Come Blow Your Horn (1965)
2. Chapter Two (1977)
• Stephen Sondheim (1930- ) musicals
1. West Side Story (1957)
• Tennessee Williams (1911- 1983)
1. The Glass Menagerie (1944)
• Thornton Wilder (1897-1975)
1. Our town (1938 Pullitzer Prize)
• August Wilson (1945- )
1. Ma Rainey's Black Bottom (1985)
2. Fences (1987)
3. Joe Turner's Come and Gone (1988)
4. The Piano Lesson (1990)

Selected Bibliography

Guides to Reference Works
• Bailey, Claudia Jean. A Guide to Reference and Bibliography for Theatre Research. 2nd ed. Columbus : Publications Committee, Ohio State U Libraries, 1983.
• Whalon, Marion K. Performing Arts Research: A Guide to Information Sources. Performing Arts Information Guide Series 1. Detroit: Gale, 1976.
• 500 Years of Theatre History from the Brown-Forman Classics in Context Festival at Actors Theatre of Louisville. Ed. Michael Bigelow Dixon and Val Smith. Lyme: Smith and Krauss, 2000.

Literary handbooks, Dictionaries and Encyclopedias
• The Concise Oxford Companion to the Theatre. P. Hartnoll, ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
• Cambridge Guide to Theater. Ed. Martin Banham. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995.
• An International Dictionary of Theatre Language. Gen Ed. Joel Trapido. Greenwood: Westport, 1985.
• The Cambridge history of English and American literature: An encyclopedia in eighteen volumes, ed. by A.W. Ward, A.R. Waller, W.P. Trent, J. Erskine, S.P. Sherman, and C. Van Doren. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons; Cambridge, England: University Press, 1907–21

Guides to Primary Works
• Connor, Billie M., and Helene G Mochedlover. Ottemiller’s Index to Plays in Collections: An Author and Title Index to Plays Appearing in Collections Published between 1900 and 1985. 7th ed. Metuchen: Scarecrow, 1988.
• Play Index. New York: Wilson, 1953- .

Guides to Scholarship and Criticism
• International Bibliography of Theatre [1982- ]. New York: Theatre Research Data Center, Brooklin Coll., City of New York, 1985- .

Dictionaries
• International Dictionary of Theatre. Mark Hawkins-Dady, ed. Chicago: St. James Press, 1992-1994.

Periodicals
American Drama
Modern Drama
American Theatre
Studies in American Drama
Comparative Drama
TDR (The Drama Review)
Essays in Theatre
New Theatre Quarterly
Theatre
Performing Arts Journal
Theatre Journal
The Tulane Drama Review
Theatre History Studies
Theatre Research International
Theatre Survey: the Journal of the American Society for Theatre Research

Suggested Reading
• American Playwrights, 1880-1945: A Research and Production Sourcebook. William W. Demastes, ed. Westport, CN: Greenwood Press, 1995.
• Bordman, Gerald Martin. The Oxford Companion to the American Theatre. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
• Contemporary American Dramatists. K. A. Berney, ed. London: St. James Press, 1994.
• Drama Criticism. Detroit: Gale Research, Inc., 1991.
• Erenstein, Robert L. “The Rise and Fall of Commedia dell’ Arte”. In 500 Years of Theatre History from the Brown-Forman Classics in Context Festival at Actors Theatre of Louisville, Ed. Michael Bigelow Dixon and Val Smith. Lyme: Smith and Krauss, 2000.
• Gavin, Christy. American Women Playwrights, 1964-1989. New York : Garland Pub., 1993.
• Hornblow, Arthur. “The American Dramatist: 1690-1890”, in A History of the Theater in America, Vol. 2. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1919. pp. 48-73.
• Shuman, Robert Baird. American Drama, 1918-1960: An Annotated Bibliography. Pasadena, CA: Salem Press, 1992.
• Spiller, R. E. The Roots of National Culture, American Literature to 1830. New York: Macmillan, 1949.
• Vinaver, Michel. “Monsieur de Molière: Full Face and Profile”. In 500 Years of Theatre History from the Brown-Forman Classics in Context Festival at Actors Theatre of Louisville, Ed. Michael Bigelow Dixon and Val Smith. Lyme: Smith and Krauss, 2000.

Prose Field Report (download timeline and bibliography)

Kelly Cameron
Engl. 760
Professor Aune
7 October 2003

What is poetry and if you know what poetry is what is prose.
—Gertrude Stein

The distinction between ‘verse’ and ‘prose’ is clear; the distinction between ‘poetry’ and ‘prose’ is very obscure. ... I object to the term ‘prose-poetry’ because it seems to imply a sharp distinction between ‘poetry’ and ‘prose’ which I do not admit, and if it does not imply this distinction, the term is meaningless and otiose, as there can be no combination of what is not distinguished.
— T.S. Eliot

What is prose?
Anything that isn’t poetry: novels, nonfiction, short stories, news writing.

But what about ... prose poetry, or “the literary bastard child?”
Nathaniel Hawthorne is credited with writing the first American prose poem, “Autumnal Characteristics.” Most of the passage was adapted from his American Notebooks, published in 1837. But the last line, points out the editors of The Party Train, was added by Hawthorne later. It seems that Hawthorne wanted to elevate the passage by giving it a memorable last line. But why is it considered prose poetry and not simply prose? There are no line breaks, no rhyme patterns. Or if it is to be classified as poetry, why isn’t simply free verse?

Famous prose poets
Gertrude Stein’s Tender Buttons, Walt Whitman’s Specimen Days, and at least regionally, Mark Vinz

But what about the short-short?
Also known as “sudden fiction,” “blasters” or “four-minute fiction,” the short-short story began appearing in small literary journals in the 1980’s. Again, some pieces that appear in short-short anthologies could, arguably, be placed in a prose poem anthology as well. One example is Margaret Atwood’s “My Life as a Bat.” In fact, in The Party Train, the editors refer to the short-short as another form of prose poetry.

A Short List of Prose Masters
Washington Irving (1783-1859)
• “Rip Van Winkle”
• “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow”
• “The Devil and Tom Walker”

Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864)
• “Young Goodman Brown”

Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849)
• “The Tell-tale Heart”
• “The Fall of the House of Usher”

Kate Chopin (1851-1904)
• “The Storm”
• “Lilacs”
• “The Story of an Hour”

Henry James (1843-1916)
• “Beast in the Jungle”
• “The Middle Years”

Flannery O’Connor (1925-1964)
• “A Good Man is Hard to Find”
• “Everything that Rises Must Converge”
• “A Late Encounter With the Enemy”

Alice Walker (1944)
• “The Flowers”
• “Everyday Use”

Louise Erdrich (1954)
• “Fleur”

Raymond Carver (1938)
• “Cathedral”

Joyce Carol Oates (1938)
• “Where are You Going, Where Have You Been?”
A Short Timeline
1941 Eudora Welty’s Petrified Man
1953 Flannery O’ Connor’s “Good Country People”
1959 Philip Roth’s “Defender of the Faith”
1965 James Baldwin’s “Going to Meet the Man”
1973 Alice Walker’s “Everyday Use”
1974 Grace Paley’s “A Conversation With My Father”
1975 John Updike’s “Separating”
1982 Kurt Vonnegut’s “Fates Worse Than Death”
1983 Toni Morrison’s “Recitatif”
1986 Louise Erdrich’s “Fleur”
1993 Diane Glancy’s “Polar Breath”

Bibliography

Alexander, Robert, Mark Vinz and C.W. Truesdale eds. The Party Train: A Collection of North American Prose Poetry. Minneapolis: New Rivers Press, 1996.

Bercovitch, Sacvan ed. The Cambridge History of American Literature, Volume Seven, Prose Writing 1940-1990. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Brier, Peter A. and Anthony Arthur, eds. American Prose and Criticism, 1990-1950. Detroit: Gale Research Center, 1981.

Davis, Alan and Michael White, eds. American Fiction Volume Seven: The Best Unpublished Short Stories by Emerging Writers. Minneapolis: New Rivers Press, 1995.

Kingsolver, Barbara and Katrina Kenison eds. The Best American Short Stories 2001. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001.

Oates, Joyce Carol, ed. The Oxford Book of American Short Stories. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.

Partridge, Elinore Hughes ed. American Prose and Criticism, 1820-1900. Detroit, Gale Research Center, 1983.

Prescott, Peter S., ed. The Norton Book of American Short Stories. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

Shapard, Robert and James Thomas, eds. Sudden Fiction: 60 New Short-Short Stories. New York, W.W. Norton & Company, 1996.

Wolff, Tobias, ed. The Vintage Book of Contemporary American Short Stories. New York: Vintage Books, 1994.

www.wwnorton.com/naal/vol_E/timeline_prose.htm

Vinz, Mark. Late Night Calls. Minneapolis: New Rivers Press, 1992.

Composition History (download pdf of outline and bibliography)

Josh Hernandez
21 October 2003

Factors Contributing to the Creation of English Composition

1800’s Rise of German research university model, with specialized disciplines and rigorous research missions in the U.S.

1862 (1890) Morrill Federal Land Grant Act
- States establish agricultural and technical institutions designed to apply the
findings of science to the managing of economic and social affairs.
- Elective curriculum
- Specialized
- Train certified experts, produce knowledge, move capitalist society forward
- Broadening access to higher education

1873 Harvard Entrance Exam for English Composition

Each candidate will be required to write a short English composition, correct in spelling, punctuation, grammar, and expression, the subject to be taken from such works of standard authors as shall be announced from time to time. The subject for 1874 will be taken from one of the following works: Shakespeare's Tempest, Julius Caesar, and Merchant of Venice; Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield; Scott's Ivanhoe and Lay of the Last Minstrel.

1885 Harvard establishes English A—Correctness, Character, and the Study of English
Prevent students from disgracing themselves every time they put pen to paper.

1900 Current-Traditional Pedagogy assumes power in the classroom

1911 The National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) was formed largely to protest Uniform Reading Lists and the conception of English studies they represented.

1912 The NCTE begins to publish English Journal in 1912

1914 Speech teachers broke away from the NCTE in 1914 to form their own professional
organization, the National Association for Academic Teachers of Public Speaking—now the Speech Communication Association

Freshman English courses were rarely devoted only to writing instruction. Their main goal was to introduce students to literary study and in the process to correct the writing in students' literary essays according to long-established standards of grammatical, stylistic, and formal correctness.

1930’s New Criticism began to supplant biographical and philological criticism as the dominant mode of academic literary study.
- Literature is widely used to teach composition
- Students have nothing worthwhile to say, and literature provides a rich subject matter

1940’s Readily apparent division is growing between literary study and teaching of writing.

1949 Conference on College Composition and Communication is mandated by the NCTE, Recognizing the need for serious reconsideration of the freshman writing course
- Post WWII- GI Bill creates huge expansion in college enrollment
- How to teach composition to large lecture classes?
- Compose essays, grades focused on mechanics and form rather than content

1950 The journal College Composition and Communication appeared in 1950.

1970’s New Composition Theories and Pedagogies begin to flourish: Process Pedagogy,
Expressive Pedagogy, Rhetorical Pedagogy, Collaborative Pedagogy, Cultural Studies in Comp, Critical Pedagogy, Feminist Pedagogy
- Graduate programs, undergraduate majors, major conferences, and journals form

Selected Bibliography (from http://webster.unh.edu/~pmatsuda/2002f/916/)

Applebee, Arthur. Tradition and Reform in the Teaching of English: A History. Urbana: NCTE, 1974.
Bass, Randy. "Story and Archive in the Twenty-First Century." College English 61.6 (1999): 659-70.
____. Rhetoric and Reality: Writing Instruction in American Colleges, 1900-1985. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois UP, 1987.
Berlin, James A. "Postmodernism, Politics, and Histories of Rhetoric." Pre/Text 11.3-4 (1990): 170-187.
____. "Revisionary History: The Dialectical Method." Pre/Text 8.1-2 (1987): 47-61.
____. "Revisionary History: The Dialectical Method." Rethinking the History of Rhetoric: Multidisciplinary Essays on the Rhetorical Tradition. Ed. Takis Poulakos. Boulder, CO: Westview. 135-151.
____. "Revisionary Histories of Rhetoric: Politics, Power, and Plurality." Unpublished manuscript.
____. Writing Instruction in Nineteenth-Century American Colleges. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois UP, 1984.
Brereton, John C., ed. The Origins of Composition Studies in the American College, 1875-1925: A Documentary History. Pittsburgh, PA: U of Pittsburgh P, 1995.
Connors, Robert J. Composition-Rhetoric: Backgrounds, Theory, and Pedagogy. Pittsburgh, PA: U of Pittsburgh P, 1997.
____. "Dreams and Play: Historical Method and Methodology." Methods and Methodology in Composition Research. Eds. Gesa Kirsch and Patricia A. Sullivan. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois UP, 1992. 15-36.
____. "Historical Inquiry in Composition Studies." The Writing Instructor 3.4 (1984): 157-167.
____. "Rhetorical History as a Component of Composition Studies." Rhetoric Review 7.2 (1989): 230-240.
____. "Writing the History of Our Discipline." An Introduction to Composition Studies. Eds. Erika Lindemann and Gary Tate. New York: Oxford UP, 1991. 49-71.
Crowley, Sharon. Composition in the University: Historical and Polemical Essays. Pittsburgh,
PA: U of Pittsburgh P, 1998.
Ferreira-Buckley, Linda. "Rescuing the Archives from Foucault." College English 61.5 (1999): 577-83.
Goggin, Maureen Daly. Authoring a Discipline: Scholarly Journals and the Post World-War II Emergence of Rhetoric and Composition. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2000.
Jarratt, Susan C. "Speaking to the Past: Feminist Historiography in Rhetoric." Pre/Text 11.3-4 (1990): 190-209.
____. "Toward a Sophistic Historiography." Pre/Text 8.1-2 (1987): 9-26.
Mailloux, Steven. "Reading Typos, Reading Archives." College English 61.5 (1999): 584-90.
Miller, Thomas P., and Melody Bowdon. "A Rhetorical Stance on the Archives of Civic Action." College English 61.5 (1999): 591-98.
Murphy, James J., ed. A Short History of Writing Instruction: From Ancient Greece to Modern America, 2nd ed. Mahwah, NJ: Hermagoras, 2001.
North, Stephen M. "The Historians." The Making of Knowledge in Composition: Portrait of an Emerging Field. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook, 1987. 66-90.
North, Stephen M. The Making of Knowledge in Composition: Portrait of an Emerging Field. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook Heinemann, 1987.
"Octalog II: The (Continuing) Politics of Historiography." Conference on College Composition and Communication. Phoenix, AZ, March 1997.
Schilb, John. "Differences, Displacements, and Disruptions: Toward Revisionary Histories of Rhetoric." Pre/Text 8.1-2 (1987): 29-44.
Tilly, Charles. "How (and What) Are Historians Doing?" American Behavioral Scientist 33.6 (1990): 685-711.
Topolski, Jerzy, ed. Historiography between Modernism and Postmodernism: Contributions to the Methodology of the Historical Research. Poznan Studies in the Philosophy of the Sciences and the Humanities, Vol. 31. Amsterdam/Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1994.
Vitanza, Victor J. "Critical Sub/Versions of the History of Philosophical Rhetoric." Rhetoric Review 6.1 (1987): 41-66.
____. "'Notes' Towards Historiographies of Rhetorics; or Rhetorics of the Histories of Rhetorics: Traditional, Revisionary, and Sub/Versive." Pre/Text 8.1-2 (1987): 63-125.
____. "'Some More' Notes, Toward a 'Third' Sophistic." Argumentation 5 (1991): 117-39.
____. "Some Rudiments of Histories of Rhetorics and Rhetorics of Histories." Rethinking the History of Rhetoric: Multidisciplinary Essays on the Rhetorical Tradition. Ed. Takis Poulakos. Boulder, CO: Westview. 193-239.
____, ed. Writing Histories of Rhetoric. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois UP, 1994.
Young, Richard, and Maureen Daly Goggin. "Some Issues in Dating the Birth of the New Rhetoric in Departments of English: A Contribution to a Developing Historiography." Defining the New Rhetorics. Ed. Theresa Enos and Stuart C. Brown. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1993. 22-43.

1870 Harvard English Entrance Examination (Crowley 165)

1. Name the vowels; the labials; the dentals; the plurals.
2. Define Etymology; the name and different classes of words.
3. Give the different modes of expressing gender in English—illustrate each.
4. Give the four rules for the formation of the plural nouns, and an example under each.
5. Give four rules for the formation of the possessive case of names; and write the possessive plural of lady, man, wife.
6. Give the distinction between personal and relative pronouns.
7. What are auxiliary verbs? Name them.
8. Give the third-person singular of the verb sit in all the tenses of the indicative mood.
9. He said that that that that pupil parsed was not that that he should have parsed. Parse the that’s in this sentence.
10. He that cometh unto me I will in no wise cast out. Between you and I there is much mischief in that plan. I intended last year to have visited you. Correct these sentences, and give four reasons for your corrections.

1879 Harvard English Entrance Examination

Write a short composition upon one of the subjects given below. Before beginning to write, consider what you have to say on the subject selected, and arrange your thoughts in logical order. Aim at quality rather than quantity of work. Carefully revise your composition, correcting all errors in punctuation, spelling, grammar, division by paragraphs, and expression, and making each sentence as clear and forcible as possible. If time permits, make a clean copy of the revised work.

I. The Character of Sir Richard Steele.
II. The Duke of Marlborough as portrayed by Thackeray.
III. The Style of “Henry Esmond.”
IV. Thackeray’s account of the Pretender’s visit to England.
Duelling in the Age of Queen Anne.

Composition Theory (download pdf of outline and bibliography)

Josh Hernandez
21 October 2003

Expressionist Theory believes that "truth can be learned but not taught. The purpose of rhetoric is to remove "that which obstructs the personal apprehension of the truth"
From http://isis.english.vt.edu/~gtateach/expressionist.htm
1. Goals: To find a "natural" voice and to use that voice in all disciplines. To become a better writer through personal narratives.
2. “Big Names”: Donald Murray, Peter Elbow, Stephen M. Fishman, Lucille Parkinson McCarthy, Marjorie Ford, Jon Ford, Gary Goshgarian
3. Common Components of Expressionist Teaching:
- Freewriting
- Keeping a Journal
- Writing Workshops / Conferences
- Imitation
- Process over Product
- Believing versus Doubting Method
- Autobiography
- Creative Nonfiction
- Story Collections
- Poetry/Prose Readings
- Hypotheticals
- Writing/Movement Exercises
4. Writing and Production
- Create a Journal or Collection of student writings online
- Create an informational video for other students on a topic in writing
- Work with a creative writing class to develop easy lessons on grammar and mechanics - group teach a class for a day
- Create a collection of stories from a certain community and publish them online or create a booklet of them
- Work with another public service group on campus to create brochures, commercials, or posters for them
5. Positive outcomes
- Creates a community of Writers
- Allows for Personal Voice in the Classroom
- Opportunity to do Service Learning or Creative Publishing
- Allows for more ways to express self
- Gives students tools to break out of pre-existing formats and writing styles
- Allows students to bring something of their own to the discussion

6. Criticisms

- Less focus on grammar and rules
- Hard to see or justify practical application
- Not useful to all students
- Not interesting to all students
- Often considered petty by the academy
- Hard to harness overly emotional or inappropriate writing

New Rhetoric or Social Epistemic sees knowledge as "not simply a static entity available for retrieval." Truth is must be "interpreted--structured and organized--in order to have meaning" (242). In addition truth is "impossible without language;" therefore, the writer must consider the discourse or language and the role of society and audience in making meaning. Overall, these theorists see "truth as probabilistic, and it provides students with techniques-heuristics-for discovering it, or what might more accurately be called creating it" (245).
From http://isis.english.vt.edu/~gtateach/social.htm
1. Goals: Become better thinkers, better writers, better citizens by questioning hierarchies such as patriarchal or sexist literature, texts biased toward the higher socioeconomic classes, or texts that reinforce dominant paradigms, or even questioning the absence of a marginalized segments
2. “Big Names”- Ann E. Berthoff, Richard L. Young, Alton L. Becker, Kenneth L. Pike, I. A. Richards, Kenneth Burke, (Paulo Freire, Henry Giroux, Ira Shor, Mina Shaughnessy)
3. Components/Tenets of Social Epistemic Writing
-Everything is a text (cars, ads, poems)
- Texts represent cultural codes that can represent hierarchies (culturally perceived as: BMW = rich and cool - Yugo = poor and uncool; thin and beautiful = desirable - fat and ugly = undesirable)

- Since everything is a text, and since everything contains cultural codes, QUESTION EVERYTHING! or READ AGAINST THE GRAIN!
- By thinking critically about the texts around us, and who produces them and to what end, and since language is a powerful tool, we can not only resist these hierarchical, cultural codes, we can effect positive change in the culture around us - Rhetoric is a political act (Berlin - Work in groups (or discourse communities) to posit and learn various approaches to texts - Knowledge...can only be posited as a product of the dialectic in which observer, the discourse community, and the material conditions of existence are considered (Berlin) - Deconstruction and critical thinking using Social Epistemic theory empowers writers and enables "students to be their own agents for social change, their own creators of democratic culture" (Shore)
4. Positive Outcomes:
- Careful, critical examination and dissection of language and how it is used politically, socially, culturally (deconstruction of texts, both written and non-written), as well as how it is used stylistically
- Students learn to think critically deconstructing texts around them (they learn a thinking skill they can transfer from written texts to the texts that affect them daily - they learn how to stop the cycle of consumption and to question and think about the data they are bombarded with on an hourly basis that may reinforce hierarchies within the culture)
- Opens students' eyes to the culture around them to notice inconsistencies and situations that may be unfair to groups outside the dominant paradigm (these groups could include, but are not limited to, minorities, lower class workers, "misfits," people from non-American or nonwestern cultures ---> postcolonial studies)
- Energetic studies - students see how language and texts effect changes that influence their daily lives
- Broad range of topics available to study (books, poetry, nonfiction, ads, movies, music, architecture, etc.)
5. Criticisms
- Students may not be interested in politics - it turns them off or bores them
- Students (or their parents - or the university for that matter) may not feel comfortable with questioning the dominant paradigm
- Most students have not been exposed to this type of critical thinking and deconstruction before, so it takes a good deal of work to help them along - understanding some of these concepts takes a lot of work (Social Epistemic Theory contains a good deal of historical study - many students' and teachers' knowledge of history (Western or otherwise) is limited, so this takes extra effort on both ends)
- Since many students have never studied or written in this manner before, you run the risk of them regurgitating what you have said in class rather than thinking and writing for themselves
- Social Epistemic Theory sets up binaries that (if not carefully constructed) simplify situations too far and may lead both teachers and students to inaccurate, reductionist conclusion.

Cognitivist theory focuses on a "scientific rhetoric of the composing process" so that the mind is studied as a "set of structures that performs in a rational manner" (Cross Talk In Comp Theory 682-85).
From http://isis.english.vt.edu/~gtateach/cognitive.htm
1. Goals - Examine and analyze the minds of students or individuals in order to determine the unconscious goals and problem-solving processes we (the general body) enact while reading and writing. These processes are continuous throughout the act of reading and writing and are more prominent and developed in expert writers. In Reading Texts, edited by the cognitivist Linda Flower, these goals are defined as “focusing primarily on the development of cognitively and culturally self-aware response statements” and emphasizing “students’ critical thinking abilities” (vi).
2. Definition - Berlin states that Cognitive rhetoric “might be considered the heir apparent of current-traditional rhetoric” (Cross Talk In Comp Theory 682). He tells us that cognitive rhetoric has claimed to be scientific; yet, their method is “grounded in cognitive psychology,” such as examining the way students compose in regards to Piaget’s developmental psychology. Briefly, cognitive rhetoric focuses on a “scientific rhetoric of the composing process” so that the mind is studied as a “set of structures that performs in a rational manner” (Cross Talk In Comp Theory 682-85). He also states that, “this paradigm argues for the primacy of cognitive structures in composing, arguing that any study of the process must begin with an analysis of these structures” (A Short History of Writing Instruction 218)
3. “Big Names”: Jerome Bruner, Janet Emig, James Britton, Janice Lauer, Richard Larson, Frank D’Angelo, James Moffett, John Hayes, Sondra Perl, Nancy Sommers, Thomas Newkirk, Joseph Williams, Lee Odell, Charles Cooper, and Linda Flower.
3. Origins - Action against a fear of “anti-intellectualism, the results of which were a failure to provide the educated experts needed for a strong economy and a strong nation” after the war. The National Defense Education Act in 1958 focused on efforts to “’propose standards of achievement’ and to ‘suggest ways of achieving them.’” This act led to conferences and documents on these conferences, such as Bruner’s “The Process of Education.” Bruner advocated using cognitive psychology to determine the structure of the writing process and how these structures should be taught. As Berlin states, Bruner emphasized the role of discovery in learning, arguing that students should use an inductive approach in order to discover on their own the structure of the discipline under consideration” (Berlin 206-208).
4. Criticisms - According to Berlin cognitive rhetoric power from this perspective is delegated to “university-certified experts, those individuals who have the cognitive skills and the training for problem solving.” In addition, the “consensus on what is good and possible is a product of class interest and class experience” is not taken into consideration. Thus, “Certain structures of the material world, the mind, and language, and their correspondence with certain goals, problem-solving,” etc. are “regarded as inherent features of the universe, existing apart from human social intervention.” These scientific facts, then, ignore the fact that we are “humanly devised social constructions” (687).
Selected Bibliography (from http://www.etsu.edu/writing/teaching&theory/compbib.htm)

Lil Brannon and Cy Knoblauch. Critical Teaching and the Idea of Literacy. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton Cook, 1993.
Edward P.J. Corbett. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student, 4th ed. Oxford UP, 1998.
Peter Elbow. What is English? MLA/NCTE, 1990.
____. Writing without Teachers. Oxford UP, 1970.
Lester Faigley. Fragments of Rationality: Postmodernity and the Subject of Composition. U of Pittsburgh Press, 1993.
Muriel Harris. Teaching One to One: The Writing Conference. Urbana, IL: NCTE, 1986.
George Kennedy. A New History of Classical Rhetoric. Princeton UP, 1995.
Richard A. Lanham. The Electronic Word: Democracy, Technology, and the Arts. U of Chicago Press, 1993.
Erika Lindemann. A Rhetoric for Writing Teachers. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Rick Monroe. Writing and Thinking with Computers: A Practical and Progressive Approach. NCTE, 1993.
Richard J. Murphy. The Calculus of Intimacy. Columbus OH: Ohio State University Press, 1993.
Rei R. Noguchi. Grammar and the Teaching of Writing: Limits and Possibilities. NCTE, 1991.
Mike Rose. Possible Lives: The Promise of Public Education in America. Houghton Mifflin, 1995.
Robert Scholes. Textual Power: Literary Theory and the Teaching of English. Yale UP, 1985.
____. The Rise and Fall of English: Reconstructing English as a Discipline. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998.
Mina Shaughnessy. Errors and Expectations. Oxford UP, 1979.
Edward M. White. Teaching and Assessing Writing: Recent Advances in Understanding Evaluating, and Assessing Student Performance, 2nd ed. Jossey-Bass, 1994.
W. Ross Winterowd and Jack Blum. A Teacher's Introduction to Composition in the Rhetorical Tradition. NCTE, 1994.

Collections
Richard Bullock, ed. The Politics of Writing Instruction: Postsecondary. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton Cook, 1991.
John Clifford and John Schilb, eds. Writing Theory and Critical Theory. MLA, 1994.
Bruce Goebel and James Hall, eds. Teaching a 'New Canon'?: Students, Teachers and Texts in the College Literature Classroom. NCTE, 1995.
Anne Herrington and Charles Moran, eds. Writing, Teaching, and Learning in the Disciplines. MLA, 1992.
Susan Hunter and Ray Wallace, eds. The Place of Grammar in Writing Instruction Past Present Future. Portsmouth NH: Boynton Cook, 1995.
James J. Murphy, ed. The Rhetorical Tradition and Modern Writing. MLA, 1982.
Gary Olson and Sidney I. Dobrin, eds. Composition Theory for the Postmodern Classroom. SUNY UP, 1995.
James F. Slevin and Art Young, eds. Critical Theory and the Teaching of Literature: Politics, Curriculum, Pedagogy. NCTE, 1995.
Gary Tate, Edward P.J. Corbett, and Nancy Myers, eds. The Writing Teacher's Sourcebook. 3rd ed. Oxford UP, 1994.
Gary Tate, Amy Rupiper, Kurt Schick, eds. Guide to Composition Pedagogies. New York: Oxford UP, 2001.
Stephen Tchudi, ed. Alternatives to Grading Student Writing. NCTE, 1997.
Lad Tobin and Thomas Newkirk, eds. Taking Stock: The Writing Process Movement in the '90s. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton Cook, 1994.
Victor Villanueva, Jr., ed. Cross-Talk in Comp Theory. NCTE, 1997.
Edward M. White, William Lutz, and Sandra Kamasukiri, eds. Assessment of Writing: Politics, Policies, Practices (Research and Scholarship in Composition 4). New York: MLA, 1997.
Kathleen Blake Yancey, ed. Voices on Voice: Perspectives, Definitions, Inquiry. NCTE, 1994.
Art Young and Toby Fulwiler, eds. When Writing Teachers Teach Literature. Portsmouth: Boynton & Cook Publishers, Inc. 1995.

Online Resource:

http://comppile.tamucc.edu/

(A Brief) History of Rhetoric (download pdf of outline and bibliography)

Laure Séguéla
October 9, 2003

Rhetoric: "a worker of persuasion" - "the art or technique for a public speaker"

Traditional Rhetoric
• Traditional rhetoric is the name given to rhetorical techniques in civilizations that do not use WRITING.
• There is no conceptualization of rhetorical techniques
• Rhetorical skills are learnt by imitation, not by rules.

Classical Rhetoric
• 5th century B.C. - "Literate Revolution" in Greece
1. Sophists - Gorgias (483?-376? BC) - Protagoras - Prodicus - Hippias
2. Isocrates (436-338 BC), Plato (427-347 BC), and Aristotle (384-322 BC)
• Roman rhetoricians: Cicero (106-43 BC) and Quintilian (AD 35-100)
• Strongest influence on rhetoric: the Aristotelian model - method of systematic inquiry - looking for truth.
• 3 sorting of discourse, according to social function: Deliberative speeches, forensic speeches, epideictic speeches

Medieval Rhetoric
• Selecting and reshaping of the classical heritage in light of Augustine of Hippo's (AD 354-430) - reinterpretation of rhetoric to suit Christian purposes.
• Redirection of deliberative discourses from political to religious ends: preaching.
• Grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic—the "trivium." Grammar and rhetoric merely prepared the beginning student for the serious business of the university. Dialectic was regarded as a preparation for logic.
1. ars dictaminis, the art of composing official letters through which church and state business was conducted
2. ars praedicandi, the art of preaching. Medieval theorists of poetry also drew on rhetorical studies of style.

Renaissance Rhetoric
• Major texts by Cicero and Quintilian were recovered.
• Proliferation of rhetoric following classical models but written in vernacular languages. All emphasized the study of style:
• Leonard Cox -Arte or Crafte of Rhetoryke (1530), first rhetorical handbook in English
• Thomas Wilson (AD 1525?-1581) - The Arte of Rhetorique (1553) - most popular English Renaissance rhetoric handbook
• Richard Sherry
• George Puttenham
• 1512 - Erasmus (AD 1466?-1536), On Copia - "abundance"
• 1545 - Another source of change for Renaissance rhetoric was the influential work of Peter Ramus/Pierre de La Ramée - Institutiones Oratoriae - Ramists hoped to define a logical, scientific discourse, untainted by non-logical appeals that would win assent from the rational audience by virtue of rationality alone. PLAIN STYLE, CLARITY, SIMPLICITY.
• Memory and delivery tended to continue their decline in importance as the Renaissance dissemination of printing made written texts ever more important to academic, religious, and political life.
• Rhetoric - finishing refinement of an upper-class education.

Rhetoric in the Eighteenth Century: The Scottish Influence
• "Seeing rhetoric as the study of the dress of thought rather than the study of thought itself threatened to trivialize it."
• Rhetoricians from the University of Edinburgh sought to stop this trend by arguing that the study of correct and persuasive style produced not only competent public speakers but also virtuous people.
• Edinburgh rhetoricians connected the study of persuasion with the more prestigious scientific discipline of psychology.
• 1783 - Hugh Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles-Lettres
• 1776 - George Campbell, Philosophy of Rhetoric

Rhetoric in Nineteenth-Century America: The Harvard Influence
• 1806 - Harvard College established the Boylston Professorship of Rhetoric and Oratory
• Dominant influence on the development of rhetoric at other American colleges.
• 1819–1851 - Edward T. Channing - chair - shifted the emphasis in practice from speaking to writing.
• 1851–1876 - Francis J. Child - chair - determined to turn the study of English from rhetoric to literature.
• A. S. Hill - continued the focus on written composition begun by Channing - rhetoric was hardly mentioned in the English department.
• 1866 - Alexander Bain - showed importance of psychology for achieving goals of persuasion in English Composition and Rhetoric: A Manual - persuasive discourse is organized by associating ideas in a way that produces the desired emotion in the audience.

Education in Twentieth-Century America - "Letteraturizzazione"
• 1911 - The National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE)
• 1912 - English Journal. First president of the NCTE: Fred Newton - Past president of the Modern Language Association (MLA), Scott deplored the demotion of rhetoric and promoted a writing that laid the emphasis on self-expression. Used Aristotle's division of discourses according to social purpose
• Departments of speech: more numerous in American colleges
• 1914 - Speech teachers broke away from NCTE to form their own professional organization, the National Association for Academic Teachers of Public Speaking—now the Speech Communication Association.
• Progressive reform - believed that the purpose of education is to integrate a diverse population into a community of productive citizens - stress on COMMUNICATIVE function of writing.
• 1899 - John Dewey - School and Society
• 1939 - College English published by NCTE.

Beginnings of Modern Composition Studies: New Criticism
• 1930s - New Criticism put its emphasis on the close analysis of literary texts - approached literary texts as complex structures of meaning - saw the relation between thought and language as fundamental rather than superficial.
• 1949 - Conference on College Composition and Communication (CCCC)
• 1950 - College Composition and Communication
• 1967 - Research in the Teaching of English

The 1960s: Classical Rhetoric and Authentic Voice
• Early 1960s - renewed attention to classical sources - attention to transformations of the classical heritage by later rhetoricians.
• 1966 - Conference at Dartmouth College on the teaching of English - "called for writing instruction that takes more notice of students' needs for self-expression as opposed to their adjustment to social demands."
• Ken Macrorie - Peter Elbow - Both developed the notion of "Authentic voice."

The 1970s: Cognitive Processes
• 1970s - Cognitive psychology and psycholinguistics - not to the "writing" process but to the "composing" process - process no longer seemed to be neatly linear
• Janet Emig - Richard Young - Alton Becker - Kenneth Pike - Nancy Sommers - Sondra Perl - Linda Flower - John R. Hayes.
• New classroom population, linguistically and culturally diverse. "Writing across the Curriculum" was supposed to directly address the needs of those diverse students, and to develop their writing skills.

The 1980s: Social and Historical Approaches to Rhetoric
• 1971 - James Kinneavy returned to Aristotle for the idea of social function of speeches in determining the form of discourse. Kinneavy classifies rhetorical situations according to their emphasis on the writer (expressive), audience (persuasive), subject matter (referential), or verbal medium (aesthetic).
• Literary-critical theories - Stanley Fish
• Historical studies of rhetoric - Andrea Lunsford and Lisa Ede - S. Michael Halloran
• Late 1980s - Rising awareness of the degree to which race and social classes affect the situation of learning writers. Linda Brodkey - Mike Rose.
• Late 1980s - seeing writing in social and cultural contexts was the prevailing tendency in the field - Linda Flower

Rhetoric and Composition Studies in the 1990s: Diversity
• Powerful themes of the 1980s—social construction, politics, literacy, and gender issues—extended in the 1990s. ISSUES OF DIVERSITY
• Lester Faigley - James Berlin - Shirley Wilson Logan - Carol Mattingly - Keith Gilyard - Catherine Prendergast - David Wallace - Annissa Bell

Into the Twenty-First Century: Concerns
• Diversity remains one of the most significant issues in writing studies
• Influence of materiality, i.e., the fact that society demands that rhetorical pieces be produced and delivered
• ethnographic research—from full-scale ethnographies to some use of qualitative methods—increasingly constitute one of the most important ways of researching the field
• Bakhtin (1895-1975) - dialogism - Presence of different voices in writings

Bibliography

Clark, Gregory, and S. Michael Halloran, eds. Oratorical Culture in Nineteenth-Century America: Transformations in the Theory and Practice of Rhetoric. Carbondale: Southern llinois Univ. Press, 1993.
Conley, Thomas M. Rhetoric in the European Tradition. New York: Longman, 1990.
Connors, Robert J., Lisa S. Ede, and Andrea A. Lunsford, eds. Essays on Classical Rhetoric and Modern Discourse. Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois Univ. Press, 1984.
Corbett, Edward P.J., and Robert J. Connors. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student. 1965; 4th ed. New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1999.
Covino, William A. The Art of Wondering: A Revisionist Return to the History of Rhetoric. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann-Boynton/Cook, 1988.
Enos, Theresa, ed. Encyclopedia of Rhetoric and Composition: Communication from Ancient Times to the Information Age. New York: Garland, 1995.
Havelock, Eric A. The Literate Revolution in Greece and Its Cultural Consequences. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1982.
Kennedy, George A. The Art of Persuasion in Greece. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1963.
Kennedy, George A. The Art of Rhetoric in the Roman World 300 b.c.–a.d. 300. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1972.
Kennedy, George A. Classical Rhetoric and Its Christian and Secular Tradition from Ancient to Modern Times. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1980.
Murphy, James J., ed. Renaissance Eloquence: Studies in the Theory and Practice of Renaissance Rhetoric. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1983.
Murphy, James J. Rhetoric in the Middle Ages. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1974.
Murphy, James J., ed. The Rhetorical Tradition and Modern Writing. New York: MLA, 1982.
Murphy, James J., ed. A Synoptic History of Classical Rhetoric. Davis, Calif.: Hermagoras Press, 1983.

Compiled Bibliographies on the History of Rhetoric

Horner, Winifred Bryan, ed. Historical Rhetoric: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Sources in English. Boston: G. K. Hall, 1980.
Lindemann, Erika. Longman Bibliography of Composition and Rhetoric: 1984–1985 (1987) and 1986 (1988). New York: Longman.
Lindemann, Erika. CCCC Bibliography of Composition and Rhetoric, 1987. Carbondale: Southern Illinois Univ. Press, 1990. Succeeding editions: 1988 (1991), 1989 (1992), 1990 (1993).

Journals
Philosophy and Rhetoric. State College: Pennsylvania State Univ. Press. Quarterly, beginning 1968.
PRE/TEXT. Arlington: Univ. of Texas. Quarterly, beginning 1979.
Rhetoric Review. Tucson, Ariz.: Rhetoric Review Association of America. Quarterly, beginning 1982.
Rhetoric Society Quarterly. St. Cloud, Minn.: Rhetoric Society of America. Quarterly, beginning 1968.
Rhetorica. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, International Society for the History of Rhetoric Quarterly, beginning 1983.

World Wide Web Links

International Society for the History of Rhetoric - http://ishr.ucdavis.edu/
American Society for the History of Rhetoric - http://www.advances.umd.edu/
Fleurs de Rhetorique - http://www.hatt.nom.fr/rhetorique/
MIT Database, over 440 searchable documents - http://classics.mit.edu/
Brigham Young University site on rhetoric- http://humanities.byu.edu/rhetoric/silva.htm
History of Rhetoric - http://www.uta.edu/english/V/histrhet.html
History of Rhetoric - http://pages.prodigy.net/bjoos/professional/history/history.html

Theory of Rhetoric (download pdf of outline and bibliography)

Joshua Kern
16 October 2003

Why rhetorical theory is so hard to nail down:

Apart from its present specialized reference in the United States to courses in effective writing, the term rhetoric commonly suggests to the modern mind, in the United States as elsewhere, verbal profusion calculated to manipulate an audience, an operation whose aims are suspect and whose typical procedures are mostly trivializing. Yet in centuries past rhetoric was commonly used in the West to refer to one of the most consequential and serious of all academic subjects and of all human activities. As the art of persuasion, the art of producing genuine conviction in an audience, rhetoric affected the entire range of human action as nothing else in theory or in practice quite did. The study and use of rhetoric enabled one to move others, to get things done.
-Walter J. Ong, S.J., Forward to The Present State of Scholarship in Historical and Contemporary Rhetoric

Overview of Key Terms and Concepts in Rhetorical Theory
The history of rhetorical theory is divided in The Rhetoric of Western Thought into three periods. Key terms from each of these periods are here listed and explanations have been attempted using both the aforementioned text and Encyclopedia of Rhetoric and Composition: Communication from Ancient Times to the Information Age.

I. Classical Rhetorical Theory
1. Major Contributors: Pericles, Gorgias, Socrates, Isocrates, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, St. Augustine
2. Rhetoric – the study of individuals persuading individuals to make free choices
3. Dialectic – here, dialectic refers to discussion and reasoning by dialogue as a method of intellectual investigation; the Socratic techniques of exposing false beliefs and eliciting truth
4. Plato’s moral-philosophical view – he felt that we should search for a reality above the vain shows of this world, and that such a reality could only be found through mathematics and philosophy; conformity to the world was mere sophistry, and to avoid this moral guidelines must be observed by the persuasive speaker or practitioner of true rhetoric
5. Aristotle’s scientific approach – rhetoric serves four functions:
A. to uphold truth and justice and play down their opposites
B. to teach in a way suitable to a popular audience
C. to analyze both sides of a question
D. to enable one to defend oneself
6. Educational-philosophical view
7. Aristotle’s Three Forms of Oratory:
A. Forensic – that which deals with happenings in the past
B. Deliberative – that which deals with future policy
C. Epideictic – that which deals with praise and blame
8. Aristotle’s Fundamental Processes of Rhetoric
A. Invention
1. Artistic forms of proof
a. Logical (logos) – those which demonstrate that a thing is so
b. Ethical (ethos) – those which depend for their effectiveness on the believability of the speaker
c. Emotional (pathos) – those designed to sway a listener’s feelings
2. Non-artistic forms of proof
a. Documents
b. Dispositions by witnesses
B. Disposition
1. Selection of ideas and evidence
2. Sequence – proem, narration, argument and epilogue
3. Apportionment – judgment and prudence in adaptation
C. Style
1. Clearness and propriety
2. Metaphor and other forms of ornamentation
D. Delivery
1. Voice control
2. Gesture and bodily movement
E. Memory – the art of recalling thoughts, images and ideas
9. The nature vs. nurture controversy – for the most part, both Greek and Roman rhetoricians felt that nature had more to do with nurture in the formation of any orator
II. British Rhetorical Theory
1. Major Contributors: Francis Bacon, Rene Descartes, John Locke, David Hume, Edmund Burke, George Campbell, Joseph Priestly, Hugh Blair
2. Four schools of thought
A. Neoclassicists – if the English language could hope to become a viable medium for expression, it must be patterned after the eternal precepts of the classical orators such as Plato, Aristotle and Horace
B. Bellestristic school – also borrowed heavily from the classics, but broadened rhetoric to include writing and criticism
C. Epistemologists – principle concern was to relate rhetorical or communication theory to the basic nature of man; these practitioners worked primarily in the fields of psychology and philosophy
D. Elocutionists – these theorists devoted their energy primarily to delivery
3. Rhetoric of style
4. Bacon’s Barriers – considered the use of language as a potential barrier to human understanding and relationship because our understanding is based within the language, and can therefore only describe similar experiences, not new ones
5. Belles lettres
A. Taste – a faculty of all individuals that can be influenced by practicing it and by applying reason
B. Criticism – criticism is an empirical art which is never independent of facts and observation
C. Genius – defined in a person by unusual inventive and creative powers
D. The sublime – one of the key sources of the pleasure of taste, along with the beautiful; these concepts imply vastness, force and power
E. Perspicuity – plain to the understanding especially because of clarity and precision of presentation
F. Precision
6. Psychological and philosophical concepts
A. Faculty psychology – three categories that form human learning: understanding, reason and imagination, to which Francis Bacon added will and appetite
B. Doctrine of association –as ideas in the elementary form enter the mind they are gradually transformed through the power of association into complex beliefs and attitudes that stimulate action
C. Common sense – school of philosophy instigated by George Campbell and his colleagues in opposition to David Hume’s skeptical system
D. Wit, humor and ridicule – concept that an audience is agreeably surprised when a speaker presents novel ideas that debase pompous or seemingly grave things, aggrandizes small and frivolous concepts, or places in juxtaposition dissimilar objects or incomparable events
E. Moral reasoning – four species of moral evidence which exist above possibility and probability but below absolute certainty:
1. Experience – based upon observation and can lead from a particular example to a universal premise
2. Analogy – indirect experience, found on remote similitude; the more ambiguous the relationship in the analogy, the less useful it is
3. Testimony – experiential in nature because it is based on the observation of others
4. Calculation of chances - a device that establishes strong probability when experience, analogy and testimony are contradictory
F. Doctrine of usage – set of rules for correct usage, based on the idea that prescriptive grammar would instigate correct usage
G. Doctrine of sympathy – genuine sympathy between the speaker and the audience can only exist when trust is present; relies on Aristotle’s principle ethos as a form of proof
7. Argumentative discourse
A. Presumption – an established argument already inductively and empirically proven that allows generalizations to be made, often based on a single example
B. Burden of proof – Richard Whately’s notion that a proof will presume to be good unless sufficient reason is put forth against it; the burden of proof lies on the side of whoever would dispute a claim
C. A priori arguments – argument based on something that happens prior to any possible experience
D. Deference – acknowledgment or presumption in favor of one’s knowledge and therefore right to hold a specific opinion
E. Refutation – the part of speech where the speaker uses arguments to weaken, disprove or impair an opposing confirmation or proof
F. Rebuttal – related to refutation, the rebuttal is the act of rebutting or refuting, particularly in a legal sense
III. Contemporary Rhetorical Theory
1. Major Contributors: James Winans, I.A. Richards, Kenneth Burke, Richard Weaver, Marshall McLuhan, Stephen Toulmin, Chaim Perelman
2. Rhetoric as Meaning
A. Context theorem of meaning – contexts determine the shape and meaning of words and symbols; since all humans are individuals with their own past and immediate experiences (contexts), each will attach slightly different meanings to symbols
B. Proper meaning superstition – Richard’s theory of abstraction of meaning, which he identifies as the human activity of making meaning, a basic premise to the understanding of rhetorical behavior
C. Semantic triangle – Thought/Reference at the top, Symbol/Word on the bottom left, and Referent on the bottom right
D. Medium – theories involving the various forms that communication takes
E. Medium as message – theories involving the influence of the medium on the message it delivers
F. Interinanimation – the mutual dependency and interact which links words and symbols together in a literary relationship
G. Metaphor – a borrowing between and intercourse of thoughts, a transaction between contexts
H. “Hot” and “Cool” media – Marshall McLuhan’s investigation led him to believe that “hot” media such as radio contains considerable specific data designed to stimulate the auditory sense, making audience participation largely unnecessary, whereas “cool” media such as television provides limited data and requires an intense degree of audience participation
I. Rhetorical vision – refers to media such as television and film as an environment in which rhetoric occurs
J. Speech act – study of the concept of meaning as they are enacted in the act of speaking
3. Rhetoric as value
A. Axiology – the general study of the theory of value and evaluation and their function I rhetoric
B. Values – as revealed by the communicator in his or her rhetoric
C. Argument from definition – attempting to describe the fixed features of a subject’s being, which provides a logical base for argumentation
D. Argument from circumstance – attempting to interpret a subject in a cause-and-effect relationship, which listeners must be persuaded to agree with
E. Language as sermonic – all language users are essentially preachers because as soon as we utter a statement, others will be tempted to look at some subject in our way
F. Ultimate terms: devil terms – terms generally regarded as bad or undesirable (such as reactionary, fascist, communist, etc.)
G. God terms – embraces a universal value that is generally regarded as good or desirable (such as progress, modern, science, democracy, etc.)
4. Rhetoric as motive
A. Motive – Kenneth Burke used “motive” to denote a complete action rather than the cause of an action, allowing language to fit and adjust behavior to a symbolically created world
B. Identification – the concept of identifying with an audience, making the audience fell that you are somehow like them and therefore speak for them (even literally as them)
C. Pentad (act, agency, agent, scene, purpose)
D. Magic, charisma – the theory that words have magical power led to concerns over the disruption of prevailing versions of truth and the charismatic power to mesmerize listeners into mindless behavior
E. Rhetorical situation – the complex elements, including exigence, audience and constraints, that compose the rhetorical situation and that can be used to determine the appropriate discourse
F. Conversion: exigency marking, indoctrination, confrontation
5. Rhetoric as a way of knowing
A. Toulmin model (claim, warrant, data, qualifier, reservation, backing)
B. Presence – endowing concepts future and remote with an immediacy that can be grasped by an audience
C. Dissociation – a departure from common sense to form a vision of reality free from contradictions of opinion, often utilized by philosophers
D. Universal audience – a set of ideal respondents to whose beliefs and standards for argumentation that speakers appeal in order to persuade their actual local audiences
E. Quasi-logical arguments – those that are similar to the formal structures of logic and mathematics; different from logic in that the signs or symbols used can have more than one meaning
F. Rule of Justice – giving equal treatment to beings or situations of the same kind, the difficulty being that no two beings or situations are exactly the same
G. Rhetorical stance – the positioning of oneself and one’s rhetoric with the nature of the audience

So what does all of this mean to us?

• Although rhetoric (at least know as such) has largely disappeared from English departments in the United States and side-stepped into the domain of Speech and Communications departments, principles of rhetoric continue to form the backbone of composition courses.
• Rhetorical Pedagogy, based loosely on the New Rhetoric of the 20th Century, has become more prevalent in the teaching of composition. Expressivist and other anti-rules pedagogies once common in composition have decreased in popularity due to the legitimizing process of the composition field that has prompted a return to its historical roots in rhetoric and by the constraints imposed on the range of discourses available under such anti-rules approaches and their lack of applicability in other fields.
• Virginia Steinhoof’s summary of a pedagogy that Plato’s Socrates might have advocated, as found in “The Phaedrus Idyll and Ethcial Play (1982):

1. Don’t profess what you know (or remember) too readily. Make students ask for it, and then surprise them by appearing not to comply.
2. Profess less knowledge and sophistication than your students. Go barefoot whenever possible and try to get them to make fun of you. Enjoy all this.
3. Use a lot of questionable pseudo-historical anecdotes to assert important points. When pressed for interpretation, assume a pious and literal persona.
4. Bewilder your students with metaphors and images so that you can avoid lengthy explications of crucial propositions, but be sure to tune these complicated and unstable discourses to the complicated and unstable souls of your students. One student at a time is enough
5. Once you have achieved a rapport with a student, keep the student with you until the play of ideas and language satisfies you with its formal and ideological consonances and then break off instruction.
6. Make fun of yourself, go ahead, be ironic: students should go away with so many questions about you, as well as about your discourse, that you risk scandal and oblivion in the long run. But know you were right to anticipate this and incorporate it into your teaching. Some students will long remember you.
7. Put nothing in writing, but talk so well that one of your students is driven to the forcing-area, impelled to memorialize or utilize you for purposes beyond your own prophetic vision. And certainly don’t write textbooks. (40)

Bibliography

These are the works that I relied on for this presentation; as each of them contains extensive bibliographies for further reading in particular theories and figures involved with rhetoric, I did not reproduce said bibliographies here. In particular I would recommend The Present Stat of Scholarship in Historical and Contemporary Rhetoric if you are interested rhetorical theory of a particular period.

Aristotle. On Rhetoric. Trans. George A. Kennedy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
Covino, William A. “Rhetorical Pedagogy.” A Guide to Composition Pedagogies. Eds. Gary Tate, Amy Rupiper, and Kurt Schick. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Enos, Theresa, ed. Encyclopedia of Rhetoric and Composition: Communication from Ancient Times to the Information Age. New York: Garland, 1996.
Golden, James L., Goodwin F. Berquist, and William E. Coleman. The Rhetoric of Western Thought. 2nd ed. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, 1976.
Horner, Winifred Bryan, ed. The Present State of Scholarship in Historical and Contemporary Rhetoric. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1990.
McClelland, Ben W., and Timothy r. Donovan, eds. Perspectives on Research and Scholarship in Composition. New York: MLA, 1985.

The Forest of Rhetoric
http://humanities.byu.edu/rhetoric/silva.htm
Composition Theory and Rhetoric Resources
http://sitemaker.umich.edu/comprhetresources/___online_journals_in___comp_rhet
Rhetorical Theory and Practice
http://www.ius.edu/communication/Rhetorical_Theory.htm
A Brief Overview of Rhetoric
http://www.lcc.gatech.edu/gallery/rhetoric/essay.html
Text Version of Plato’s Gorgias
http://eserver.org//philosophy/plato/gorgias.txt
Aristotle’s Rhetoric
http://www.public.iastate.edu/~honeyl/Rhetoric/

College Composition and Communication (CCC)
College English
College Teaching
Boundary 2 (?)
Dialogue: A Journal for Writing Specialists
Discourse
English Education (?)
JAC: A Journal of Composition Theory
Journal of Teaching Writing (?)
Pedagogy
Philosophy and Rhetoric
Research in the Teaching of English
Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric
Rhetoric Review: A Journal of Rhetoric and Writing
Rhetoric Society Quarterly
Style (?)

Computers and Writing (download pdf of outline and bibliography)

Joshua Kern
6 November 2003

I. Timeline
A. I won’t discuss a timeline for computers and writing, mainly because it involves the evolution of the various technologies discussed below
B. For those interested, an excellent timeline can be found at http://www.cwrl.utexas.edu/~ccjrnl/Archives/online/1998/Wilferth-Cesarini/CC.html
II. Problems with the scholarship
A. Technology changes so fast that many of the more applicable information sources from the past are, quite simply, no longer applicable
B. Computers have been thrust on the education system as a whole, with many problems overlapping departmental divisions
1. Validity of on-line sources in research
2. Question of authorship of texts/intellectual property
III. Aspects of computers in writing
A. Word Processing
1. Studies on student editing have been unable to determine whether word processors have actually increased this practice
2. Trying to isolate universal differences between print and screen writing is futile, as every writer writes differently, often based on the situation at hand
3. Students, particularly those relatively new to computing, can have trouble controlling the writing environment, i.e. using or not using the spell checker, window size, display, etc.
4. Many writers have trouble getting closure with a text that can so easily be changed
5. ASCII, as the official code for English on computers, alienates characters (and therefore students names) from other cultures
B. E-mail
1. This category includes email programs through Internet providers and instant messaging services such as MSN Instant Messenger and the Yahoo equivalent
2. Unless stipulations are set forth by the teacher, email can be seen as a 24-7 beeper, and even with this in mind it can significantly increase a teacher’s workload
3. Studies have shown that language used in email is different than other forms of written communication
4. The language and atmosphere of email is generally informal
5. Email can invoke an illusion of intimacy between correspondents
C. Online Discussion
1. This category would include such utilities as blogs, discussion boards, forums, and chat rooms
2. On-line discussions can and do get out of the control of the teacher; while some held that such discussions would be more democratic because of the electronic equality of the participants, research has shown that we carry our cultural biases on-line with us, and that these biases can actually flare brighter when normal social cues in face-to-face communication are missing
D. The Web/Hypertext/Hypermedia
1. Writing in hypertext itself has invoked debates about the validity and possible “improvement” to be found in such media
2. While hypertext allows for a non-linear progression of ideas, linking thoughts together in a more direct way, such connections are someone else’s links and not ones discovered in the course of the encounter between the text and the reader
IV. Two major issues that computing brings to the table (and that have yet to be resolved)
A. Difference
1. Differences in gender interaction with technology
2. Differences in race interaction with technology
B. Access
1. Access in the realm of technology is based primarily on wealth rather than gender or race
2. Two kinds of access:
a. Home access allows a user to create an environment that works well for them, from having their favorite chair to personal software settings
b. Public access is just that, access at a public terminal that usually has a lock on adjustable features, is usually not in the most conductive environment
V. Conclusion
A. I have tended to focus on the problems that have yet to be resolved, assuming that we are already sufficiently familiar with the multitude of benefits that accompany these technologies
B. By considering potential issues now, we will be better situated to incorporate technology in the classroom

Bibliography

Barber, John F. and Dene Grigar, eds. New Worlds, New Words: Exploring Pathways for Writing About and In Electronic Environments. Cresskill: Hampton Press, 2001.
Bolter, Jay David. Writing Space: The Computer, Hypertext, and the History of Writing. Hillsdale: L. Erlbaum Associates, 1991.
Brooks, Kevin. “Reading, Writing, and Teaching Creative Hypertext: A Genre-Based Approach.” Pedagogy: Critical Approaches to Teaching Literature, Language, Composition, and Culture. V2 n3, 2002 Duke University Press.
Coogan, David. Electronic Writing Centers: Computing the Field of Composition. Stanford: Ablex Pub. Corp., 1999.
Dowling, Carolyn. Writing and Learning with Computers. Melbourn: ACER Press, 1999.
Duffelmeyer, Barbara B. “Critical Work in First-Year Composition: Computers, Pedagogy, and Research”. Pedagogy: A Critical Approach to Teaching Literature, Language, Compostition, and Culture. V2 issue3 Fall 2002 pp 357-374.
Fledman, Paula R. and Buford Norman. The Wordworthy Computer: Classroom and Research Applications in Language and Literature. New York: Random, 1987.
Haas, Christina. Writing Technology: Studies in the Materiality of Literacy. Mahway: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers, 1996.
Hawisher, Gail E., ed. Computers and the Teaching of Writing in American Higher Education. Norwood: Ablex Pub. Corp. 1996.
Howard, Tharon W. A Rhetoric of Electronic Communities. Greenwich: Ablex Pub. Corp., 1997.
Johnson-Eilola, Johndan. Nostalgic Angels: Rearticulating Hypertext Writing. Norwood: Ablex Pub. Corp., 1997.
Kalmbach, James Robert. The Computer and the Page: Publishing, Technology, and the Classroom. Norwood: Ablex Pub. Corp, 1997.
Moeller, Dave. Computes in the Writing Classroom. Urbana: National Council of Teachers in English, 2002.
Montague, Marjorie. Computers, Cognition, and Writing Instruction. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990.
Moran, Charles. “Technology and the Teaching of Writing.” A Guide to Composition Pedagogies. Gary Tate, Amy Rupiper, and Kurt Schick, eds. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Oakman, Robert L. Computer Methods for Literary Research. Athens: U of Georgia P, 1984.
Palmquist, Mike et al. Transitions: Teaching Writing in Computer-Supported and Traditional Classrooms. Greenwich: Ablex Pub. Corp., 1997.
Self, Cynthia L. Passion, Pedagogies and 21st Century Technologies. Logan: Utah State University Press, 1999.
Sharples, Mike. Cognition, Computers, and Creative Writing. New York: Halsted Press, 1985.
Shillingsburg, Peter L. Scholarly Editing in the Computer Age: Theory and Practice. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1996.
Shostak, Robert, ed. Computers in Composition Instruction. Eugene: International Council for Computers in Education, 1984.
Strickland, James. From Disk to Hard Copy: Teaching Writing with Computers. Portsmouth: Boynton/Cook Publishers, 1997.
Snyder, Ilanda, ed. Page to Screen: Taking Literacy into the Electronic Era. New York: Routledge, 1998.
Trumbauer, Lisa. Click It! Computer Fun Writing. Brookfield: Millbrook Press, 2000.

Computers and the Humanities
Computers and Composition
Literary and Linguistic Computing: Journal of the Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing

Computers and Composition Online – http://www.bgsu.edu/cconline/
Contraversial Issues in Computers and Composition – http://www.cwrl.utexas.edu/~syverson/330/spring96/
Diversity and Technology Issues – http://www.english.upenn.edu/CFP/archive/1996-08/0007.html

Service Learning (download pdf of outline and bibliography)

Joshua Kern
6 November 2003

What is Service Learning?
• Service learning integrates community service and academic study by establishing partnerships with community organizations and businesses in order to actively engage students with the community and to enhance their understanding of course goals.
• Service learning is not exactly a new concept, and its advocates include such figures as John Dewey in its theoretical evolution.

Three Primary Aspects of Service Learning:
• Promote civic responsibility
• Connect the service activity to the academic aspect of the course
• Reflection on the community service aspect of the course

Benefits of Service Learning
(As found in Barbara Jacoby’s Service Learning in Higher Education)

To Students:
• Service-learning integrates theory with practice
• It improves students’ comprehension of course content
• It makes them more aware of community needs and deepens their understanding of underlying social and political problems
• It strengthens their sense of social responsibility
• It heightens their understanding of human difference and commonality
• It develops the habit of critical reflection
• It sharpens students’ abilities to solve problems creatively and work collaboratively
• It clarifies their personal and career goals
• It provides experience valued by employers

To Teachers:
• They value their relationships with community partners
• The can share responsibility for creating knowledge with students and community partners
• Their teaching is invigorated by experimentation with a new, more active pedagogy
• Service projects open doors to research opportunities
• Professors, like their students, take satisfaction in making a difference

To the Community:
• They value their relationships with the university
• They see service learning as an outreach activity, increasing visibility for the organization and its work
• They appreciate the students’ contribution to their organization and its clients
• They enjoy coaching students and observing their development

Bibliography

Adler-Kassner, Linda, Robert Crooks, and Ann Watters, eds. Writing the Community: Concepts and Models for Service-Learning in Composition. Washington, DC: AAHE, 1997.
Daigre, Eric. “Toward a Critical Service-Learning Pedagogy: A Freirean Approach to Civic Liberty.” Academic Exchange Quarterly. Winter, 2000 v4 p6.
Deans, Thomas and Zan meyer-Goncalves. “Service-Learning Projects in Composition and Beyond.” College Teaching. Winter, 2000 v46 p12.
Dewey, John. Experience and Education. New York: Collier Macmillan, 1938.
Eyler, Janet. What’s the Learning in Service-Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999.
Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Trans. M.B. Ramos. New York: Continuum, 1989.
Hutchinson, Glenn. “Service Learning: Vygotsky, Dewey, and Teaching Writing.” Academic Exchange Quaterly. Winter, 2000 v4 p73.
Jacoby, Barbara. Building Partnerships for Service-Learning. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass, 2003.
---. Service Learning in Higher Education: Concepts and Practices. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996.
Julier, Laura. “Community Service Pedagogy.” A Guide to Composition Pedagogies. Gary Tate, Amy Rupiper, and Kurt Schick, eds. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Kraft, R., and M. swadener, eds. Building Community: Service Learning in the Academic Disciplines. Denver: Colorado Campus Compact, 1994.
Oster, Laura Kay. Service Learning: A National Survey of Undergraduate Communication Departments. Thesis: NDSU, 1995.

Journals

College Composition and Communication
College English
JAC (Journal of Advanced Composition)
Pedagogy
The Journal of Language and Learning across the Disciplines
The Review of Higher Education
Rhetoric Review

Web Sites

Service Learning and Composition
http://www.unomaha.edu/~srvlearn/comp.html
Michigan State Universities Service-Learning Writing Project
http://www.msu.edu/~wrac/t1/t1_service.html
Service Learning in Composition: Teaching Resources
http://www.ncte.org/groups/cccc/com/service/108777.htm

Technical and Professional Writing (download pdf of outline and bibliography)
By Kelly Cameron
28 October 2003

Careers in Technical and Professional Writing:
Technical writer
Technical writers work to translate highly technological or scientific language into language that can be easily understood by a nontechnical, nonscientific audience. They write assembly instructions, catalogs, how-to manuals, project proposals and promotion materials. They are also responsible for producing reports, letters, internal memos, guidelines, procedures and training materials.
Good technical writers strive for clarity and simplicity by using standard language — not technical jargon. Careers in Writing uses the example of the “Dilbert” comic strip as an example of bad technical writing; the hapless Dilbert must decipher hieroglyphic-like memos and reports every day. The cardinal rule of good technical writing: if a word won’t be understood outside of the cubicle, don’t use it.
Technical writers are employed at software and manufacturing companies across the United States, but there are large concentrations of technical writers working in the Northeast, California and Texas.
There are no famous technical writers
Technical writers don’t get a byline attached to their work and have to be content working behind the scenes. They make a name for themselves by compiling a list of credits and recommendations by their employers. Technical writers often specialize in certain areas, such as engineering or medicine.

Career fields
Advertising, armed forces, architecture, agriculture, corporate communications, computer system documentation, education, electronics, engineering, environment, entertainment, film and documentaries, finance and banking, graphic design, government, information development, insurance, journalism, manual writing, market research, manufacturing, mechanics, medicine, proposal writing, publication management and design, publicity, sales, science, telecommunications, video production and web design
Job titles
Assistant technical writer, associate technical writer, consulting technical writer, copy editor, copywriter, corporate technical writer, course developer, curriculum designer, documentation contractor, documentation specialist, education specialist, information systems writer, instructional designer, junior technical writer, knowledge analyst, lead technical writer, senior technical writer, software technical writer, technical communicator, technical editor, technical intern, technical translator and trainer
Job climate
As technology expands, so does the need for technical writers. There are also less writers who can (or want to) handle technological writing, so the demand for technical writers is a lot higher than in other writing fields.
What technical writers earn
According to a survey conducted by the Society for Technical Communications, entry level technical writers earn a median income of $36,000 per year. Midlevel technical writers earn about $42,500, while senior level writers earn about $55,500. Technical writers in supervisory positions earn more. Technical writers with a Bachelor’s degree earn about $47,000, while those with a Master’s degree earn about $49,500. Those with a doctorate earn about $60,000. Entry level technical writers with degrees in engineering or science earn more than their English major counterparts.

Resources
Intercom, a magazine published by the Society for Technical Communications
Technical Communication, a journal published by the Society for Technical
Communications
STC’s website, found at http://www.stc.org
Journal of Technical Writing and Communication
Freelance writers
Freelance writers work at their own pace, and pick their own stories. They also get to work when they feel like it, and work in their pajamas, if they want. There are, of course, downsides. They don’t have a steady paycheck. Some freelance writers take every job that comes their way, in the fear that another may not come along. They also often work from home, which can create conflicts between their jobs and personal lives.
Freelance writers often work for magazines and newspapers, writing on many different topics or specializing in one or two. Many freelancers do it on a part-time basis, to supplement their income or just to get their work published.
How to get started in freelance writing
Experts urge wannabe freelancers to browse the different publications they may be interested in writing for. Submissions should match the tone and subject matter of the publication. Writers can send an SASE to some publications and receive their guidelines for writers in return. New freelance writers often have to take the “on spec” approach, which means sending articles to their desired publication with no guarantee that their articles will ever make it to print. This is the approach most new freelancers must take; they have no track record and editors aren’t familiar with their work. Freelancers can also send query letters to see if any editors are interested in their ideas before they start writing.
What do freelance writers, or stringers, earn?
It varies, as they are paid by the story. Some freelancers report earning up to $100,000 per year, but that’s through working full-time, writing in a very specialized area such as healthcare, and heavy self-promotion. New freelancers earn very little, and sometimes publish for free to develop a track record. It helps if people start writing for a firm, so they can build a reputation and a portfolio before the begin freelancing.

Resources
http://www.freelancing.com

Careers in Writing by Blythe Camenson
Staff writers and reporters
Staff writers and reporters produce the bulk of the writing in newspapers and magazines. Unlike freelancers, staff writers and reporters are tied to a desk — they often have a set number of hours they need to work each day. They also are assigned stories and have to discuss their own story ideas with an editor before beginning to write. But staff writers and reporters earn a steady paycheck to compensate somewhat for their lack of freedom. The downside is that reporters often work more than a 40-hour week — when the news is happening, a reporter has to be working. And they don’t get paid extra (editorial aside). Reporters also tend to move around a lot, not staying at one newspaper for more than two or three years.
Job outlook
The competition for writing jobs in bigger markets is intense. But writers can often start their careers in smaller markets, and use that experience to land a better job. The turnover rate at small firms — and at larger firms — is high, due to low salaries and a high burnout rate. A 1999 survey by American Publishers, Inc. showed that entry level writers earned a median income of about $25,000. Many writers for small newspapers begin at about $18,000 per year. The highest an experienced reporter could hope to make is about $34,000 per year, although people in editorial positions often earn more. Employers generally look for someone with a Bachelor’s degree in English or journalism, although some newspaper publishers prefer to hire someone with a journalism degree plus a specialized degree in political science or history. Those who seek a Master’s degree in journalism or communications often do so because they want to teach.

Resources
Society for Professional Journalists at http://www.spj.org
Public relations, advertising and marketing writing
We who have dabbled in journalism have a name for these people — the ethically challenged department. The three fields have a common goal — to sell, sell, sell — but approach it in different ways. Marketing writers develop a concept and a marketing strategy, and use writing to communicate that concept. Advertising writers work closely with marketing writers to write advertising copy to be used by newspapers, magazines, radio and television to sell,
sell, sell. Public relations writers are a lot less obvious than advertising writers; they must be more subtle. They write press releases and stories about their product and/or service, and hound reporters and editors for feel-good Lifestyles section stories about their product and/or services.
PR writers, advertisers and marketers are employed by advertising agencies, marketing firms/departments, corporate advertising departments, publishing companies, bookstores, vacation resorts and chambers of commerce. These types of writers work in-house or freelance.
Job titles
Agency manager, account manager/executive, assistant account manager/executive, creative/art director, assistant/junior art director, copywriter and assistant/junior copywriter, print production manager and assistant, assistant media planner, media buyer, traffic manager and assistant, market researcher, assistant research executive and publicists and public relations people.
Job climate
There is a lot of competition for public relations jobs, as they are usually clustered in larger cities. Also, graduates in diverse majors — such as communications, English, public relations, journalism, and advertising — are all vying for the same jobs. Journalists who lose their ideals and want to make money usually gravitate toward marketing and public relations.
Starting salaries for employees in this field generally start at about $28,000. Highly experienced copywriters can earn as much as $150,000 per year. People working in this field generally move from job to job.

Resources
Public Relations Society of America at http://www.prsa.org
Society for Marketing Professional Services at http://www.smps.org
Writers of really important stuff, such as books
Most books give the oft-repeated advice to budding novelists: “Write for yourself. Write what you would be interested in reading.” Careers in Writing suggests sending query letters to editors to gauge reaction to the book. It also suggests, for new writers who want to find an agent, finding one that is a member of the Association of Authors’ Representatives. Big name publishers won’t consider a manuscript submitted by a writer, and will only work with agents. Agent-less writers will have better luck with publishers of genre fiction, such as romance and horror. There is generally a bigger market for nonfiction books, according to Careers in Writing.

Resources
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw
The Market List: A Resource for Genre Fiction Writers at http://www.marketlist.com

Bibliography
Bingham, Earl G. Pocketbook for Technical and Professional Writers. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1982.
Camenson, Blythe. Careers in Writing. Chicago: NTC/Contemporary Publishing Group, Inc., 2001.
Couture, Barbara and Jone Rymer Goldstein. Cases for Technical and Professional Writing. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1985.
Dobrin, David N. “Is Technical Writing Particularly Objective?” College English 47.3 (1985): 237- 251.
Harris, Elizabeth. “In Defense of the Liberal-Arts Approach to Technical Writing.” College English 44.6 (1982): 628-636.
Harris, Elizabeth. “Applications of Kinneavy’s Theory of Discourse to Technical Writing.” College English 40.6 (1979): 625-632.
Huckin, Thomas N. and Leslie A. Olsen. Technical Writing and Professional Communication For Nonnative Speakers of English, Second Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc., 1991.
Lannon, John M., Technical Writing, Sixth Edition. Dartmouth, University of Massachusetts, 1994.
Lay, Mary M., et al. Technical Communication, Second Edition. Boston: Irwin McGraw-Hill, 2000.
Perry, Carol . The Fine Art of Technical Writing, Key Points to Help You Think Your Way Through Writing Scientific or Technical Publications, Theses, Term Papers, and Business Reports. Hillsboro, Ore.: Blue Heron Publishing, 1991.
Rutter, Russell. “Poetry, Imagination, and Technical Writing.” College English 47.7 (1985): 698- 712.
Tebeaux, Elizabeth. “Redesigning Professional Writing Courses to Meet the Communication Needs of Writers in Business and Industry.” College Composition and Communication 36.4 (1985): 419-428.

Writing Center Theory and Research (download pdf of outline and bibliography)

Mariana Caballero
English 760
30 October 2003

Historical Antecedents

- Literary societies
- Tutoring services
- Conferencing method used in composition classrooms

Timeline

18th century: Literary societies. There is no direct link between them and 20th century writing
centers but they share some characteristics. Both are student-centered, and students work with peers or faculty in a collaborative way.

1930s: Influx of new, under prepared students, usually the first generation of the family to attend college.
The University of Minnesota and the State University of Iowa created labs separate from the classroom.
Employed graduate assistants working closely with faculty members.
First wave of open admissions.

1950s: Colleges offered free tutoring for athletes and WWII veterans, usually paid for by the athletic department of the GI Bill.

1960s: Universities offered tutoring to low-income, under prepared students. This was one of the outcomes of open admissions. Second wave of open admissions.
Introduction of peer tutors. (late 1960s, early 1970s)

1970s: Open admissions and the literacy crisis. Expansion of writing centers.
1977: Creation of “The Writing Lab Newsletter” to support practice.

1980: Creation of “The Writing Center Journal” to support research and theory.

1984: “The Idea of a Writing Center” by Stephen North

1990s: WAC (Writing Across the Curriculum) context as a major trend for writing centers (Muriel Harris).

Different Denominations of Writing Centers

- Lab or laboratory – The earliest reference found is in 1904. A high school teacher, Philo Buck, called it “laboratory method”.
- Clinic - The denomination changed in the 1940s to clinic, perhaps showing a connection to psychology and medicine.
- Center – In the 1970s and 1980 the preferred term became center.

Different Types of Writing Centers

- Programmed materials-and-tapes labs
- Peer tutoring drop-in centers
- Wholesale sentence-combining labs
- So-called remedial centers staffed by professional tutors
- OWLs (Online Writing Labs)
- Full service center

OWLs

- These were developed as a solution for those students who weren’t able to go to a physical writing center.
- They provide online tutoring, handouts, different information on various aspects of writing, reply to e-mails in a short time, links to useful resources, and a complement to classroom instruction.

Technology

- Innovations in technology are closely related to OWLs
- With the development of the Internet and the World Wide Web, writing centers have been exploring the possibilities offered by these.
- Writing center staff are often more up to date with the technological innovations in order to apply them to their field.

ESL Students

- Cultural differences
- Language barriers
- Cultural though patterns

To overcome these problems, the tutor should first build rapport with the ESL student. The next step is the tutorial, through which the ESL student should be able to overcome the obstacles. For this, the writing terms used in English must be clear to the student (thesis, topic sentence, transitions, essay, unity, etc.), and the process requires patience from the tutor. Different techniques should be used.

Theory

The theory of writing centers is closely related to the theory of composition. You can refer to Josh Hernandez’ and Jen’s handouts about Composition Theory and Pedagogy.

- Current traditional rhetoric
- Expressivism (also called expressionism)
- Social constructivism

Current traditional rhetoric: focuses almost exclusively on the writer’s text and its formal dimensions of grammatical correctness. It is closely related to the idea of remedial help.

Expressivism: it has dominated writing instruction from the 1970s to the mid-1980s. Writing is viewed as a means of self-discovery by which students develop an “authentic voice” in their writing. (Remember Kendra?)
Steven North maintains that attention should be focused on the process and the writer, not the text.

Social constructivism: focuses on the socio cultural and historical settings in which writers develop their understanding of language and knowledge. It appeared in the mid-1980s and has become one of the dominant paradigms of writing instruction. Collaboration and collaborative learning play an important role.

Research

In order to individualize the writing center, there are different research methodologies, which will provide the kind of knowledge required in each case.

Purposes

- The need to have a local, institutional fit.
- Investigating the center’s student population
- Investigating tutor training
- Investigating the institution
- The need to justify the writing center to others

Methodologies

Applied social research.
- For example: interviews, ethnographies, questionnaires, data and textual analyses, case studies, participant observation, needs analysis, formative evaluations, surveys, focus groups.
- If several theories are useful, applied research will combine them.
- Various sources of data that form a useful list for writing center directors:
a. Primary sources of data can include people involved, independent observation, and physical documents.
b. Secondary sources of data can include prior studies and administrative records.
c. Other possible sources of data can be computerized data bases, self reports, and documentary evidence.
- In some situations a combination of methods can be used.

Usability testing

- It is an ongoing process in which users’ needs, abilities, and preferences must be considered when creating a system.
- Analyzing what the needs are leads to an effective use of the resources: services will be used easily, and there will be an effective interaction between people.
- Numerous research methods: focus groups, surveys, design walk-throughs, evaluation questionnaires, and field studies.

Reflections on experience

- Writing center people look back at what they have done and try to put together a set of guidelines which may help others in their work in writing centers.
- This is one of the most common methods.

Speculation

- Some theory or idea is taken to explain what happens in writing centers, or to make suggestions about a course of action to take.

What is all the research useful for?

- For a new writing center director to be familiar with the center and its operation.
- For the writing center director who remains in office:
a. to present the work that has been done
b. to answer questions about policies and procedures
c. to make administrative decisions
d. to compare present and past conditions
e. to reflect on what he has done, what he has not done, and what he should do
f. to evaluate the work of the director
- For sharing information with other writing center directors in professional contexts such as conference presentations, listserv discussions, and articles in professional journals.
- For further research.

Stephen North, in his article “The Idea of a Writing Center”: “our job is to produce better writers, not better writing.”

Muriel Harris, in her article “What’s up and What’s in,” describes the writing center as: “the antitheses of generic, mass instruction.”

A Brief History of University Writing Centers: Variety and Diversity
http://www.newfoundations.com/History/WritingCtr.html:

“If writing centers are going to finally be accepted, surely they must be accepted on their own terms, as places whose primary responsibility, …is to talk to writers. That is their heritage, and it stretches back farther than the 1960s or the early 1970s, or to Iowa in the 1930s [, or St. Louis in 1904] – back, in fact, to Athens, where in a busy marketplace a tutor called Socrates set up the same kind of shop: open to all comers, no fees charged, offering, on whatever subject a visitor might propose, a continuous dialectic that is, finally, its own end.”

Bibliography
Murphy, Christina, and Sherwood, Steve, eds. The St. Martin’s Sourcebook for Writing Tutors. New York; St. Martin’s Press. Inc., 1995.
Olson, Gary A., ed. Writing Centers Theory and Administration. Urbana, Illinois; National Council of Teachers of English, 1984.
Tate, Gary, Rupiper, Amy, and Schick Kurt, eds. A Guide to Composition Pedagogies. New York: Oxford UP, 2001.
Harris, Muriel. “Part I. Writing Program Administrators’ Inquiry in Action. Diverse Research Methodologies at Work for Diverse Audiences: Shaping the Writing Center to the Institution.” 10/21/2003. http://owl.english.purdue.edu/lab/staff/homepages/wpa.html
Susan C. Waller. “A Brief History of University Writing Centers: Variety and Diversity.” 10/21/2003. http://www.newfoundations.com/History/WritingCtr.html
Boquet, Elizabeth H. "Our Little Secret: A History of Writing Centers, Pre- to Post-Open Admissions." College Composition and Communication 50.3 (1999): 463-82.

Writing Centers Online:
Colorado State University Online Writing Center: http://www.colostate.edu/Depts/WritingCenter/
Purdue’s Writing Lab: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/
Trinity College Writing Center: http://www.trincoll.edu/depts/writcent/
Washington State University's Online Writing Lab: http://owl.wsu.edu/index.asp

Online Resources:
Tutor.edu, A Manual for Writing Center Tutors: http://www.montreat.edu/tutor/Default.htm
International Writing Centers Association: http://www.montreat.edu/tutor/Default.htm
Tutor Stories: http://iwca.syr.edu/IWCA/IWCAStories.html
Writing Centers: A Selected Bibliography: http://iwca.syr.edu/IWCA/WCBib.html#Mullin

Organizations
The National Writing Centers Association
The International Writing Centers Associations: http://iwca.syr.edu/
The Northeast Writing Centers Association: http://acad.bryant.edu/~ace/wrtctr/NEWCA.htm
The Writing Centers Research Project: http://www.louisville.edu/a-s/writingcenter/wcenters/index.html
The Council of Writing Program Administrators: http://wpacouncil.org

Publications
The Writing Lab Newsletter - http://owl.english.purdue.edu/lab/newsletter/index.html
The Writing Center Journal - http://www.writing.ku.edu/wcj/
Focuses: A Journal Linking Composition Programs and Writing-Center Practice

Listserv
Wcenter - http://lyris.acs.ttu.edu/cgi-bin/lyris.pl?enter=wcenter&text_mode=0&lang=english

Phonology (download pdf of outline and bibliography)

Mariana Caballero
13 November 2003

What is phonology?
Phonology is the component of a grammar made up of the elements and principles that determine how sounds vary and pattern in a language.
The study of phonology attempts to discover general principles that underlie the patterning of sounds in human language.

BASIC CONCEPTS
Features: The smallest unit of analysis of phonological structure, combinations of which make up segments.
Segments: Individual speech sounds.
Syllables: A unit of linguistic structure that consists of a syllabic element and any segments that are associated with it.
Allophones: Variants of a phoneme, usually in complementary distribution and phonetically similar.
Environment: The phonetic environment in which a sound occurs.
Phoneme: A contrastive segmental unit with predictable phonetic variants.
Glides: Sounds that are produced with an articulation like that of a vowel, but move quickly to another articulation.

Phonemes are enclosed in slanted brackets / /; phonetic notation is indicated by square brackets [ ]

SEGMENTS IN CONTRAST
Segments are said to contrast (or to be distinctive or be in opposition) when their presence alone may distinguish forms with different meanings from each other.
Example: the segments [s] and [z] contrast in the words sip and zip.
Minimal pairs: consist of two forms with distinct meanings that differ by only one segment found in the same position in each form. It is on the basis of sound and not spelling that minimal pairs are established.
Example: zip and sip.

COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION
It is the distribution of allophones in their respective phonetic environments such that one never appears in the same phonetic context as the other.
Example: Not all ls in English are pronounced the same way. Some are voiced and some are voiceless. Voiced: blue; gleam; slip.
Voiceless: plow; clap; clear.
The voicelessness the ls is a consequence of their phonetic environment.
Since no voiceless l occurs in the same phonetic environment as a voicelessness one (and vice versa), it is said that the two variants are in complementary distribution.

PHONEMES AND ALLOPHONES
Predictable variants of certain segments are grouped together into a contrastive phonological unit called a phoneme. These variants, which are referred to as allophones, are usually phonetically similar and are frequently found in complementary distribution.
Allophonic variation: is found throughout language. In fact, every speech sound we utter is an allophone of some phoneme and can be grouped together with other phonetically similar sounds into a class that is represented by a phoneme on a phonological level of representation.

LANGUAGE-SPECIFIC PATTERNS
Although the phenomenon of allophonic variation is universal, the patterning of phonemes and allophones is language-specific. What is discovered for one language, may not hold true for another.

SYLLABLES
The syllable is usually composed of a nucleus (usually a vowel) and its associated nonsyllabic segments.
Internal structure of a syllable
Nucleus (N): is the syllable’s only obligatory member. It is a syllabic element that forms the core of a syllable.
Coda (C) consists of those elements that follow the nucleus in the same syllable.
Rhyme (R) is made up of the nucleus and coda.
Onset (O) is made up of those elements that precede the rhyme in the same syllable.

People don’t syllabify words randomly. That is because syllables comply with certain constraints that prohibit them (in English) from beginning with an unnatural sequence.
Constraints can be stated for each of the terminal subsyllabic units O, N, and C.
Phonotactics, the set of constraints on how sequences of segments pattern, forms part of a speaker’s knowledge of the phonology of his or her language. Example: when we try to adjust syllables of a foreign language, to conform with the pronunciation requirements of our own language.

FEATURES
Linguists view segments as composed of smaller elements. These elements are called features: the units of phonological structure that make up segments.
Speech is produced by a number of coordinated articulatory activities such as voicing, tongue position, lip rounding and so on. Features such as [voice], [high], [round]—features are written in square brackets—directly reflect this activity, in that each feature is rooted in an independently controllable aspect of speech production.
Matrix is the representation of a segment with features. Each feature or group of features defines a specific property of the segment. This representation is in binary terms: [+] means that a feature is present, and [-] means that it is absent.
Example: Feature matrix for the English vowel [a]

+syllabic These features define the segment as
-consonantal vowel, consonant, or glide (here, a vowel)
+sonorant
-high These features define the placement
+low of the tongue (here, a low back vowel)
+back
-round This feature defines lip rounding (here, unrounded)
+tense This feature defines tenseness/laxness (here, tense)

The features of English
• Major class features: features that represent the classes consonant, obstruent and sonorant.
• Laryngeal features: features that represent states of the larynx.
• Place features: features that represent place of articulation.
• Dorsal features: features that represent placement of the body of the tongue.
• Manner features: features that represent manner of articulation.

SCHOOLS OF PHONOLOGY

• Structuralism
- The Prague school
- Trubetzkoy
- American distributionalism
- Morphophonemics
- Binarity and biuniqueness
• Jakobson
- Universalism
- Acoustic features
• Generative Phonology
- Chomsky and Halle, The Sound Pattern of English (SPE)
- Systematic phonetic and systematic phonemic representations
- Abstractness
- Morpheme structure constraints
- Redundancy rules
- Rules
- Features
- Markedness
• Phonological Theories after SPE
- Natural Phonology (Stampe)
- Natural Generative Phonology (Vennemann, Hooper)
- Autosegmental Phonology (Goldsmith)
- Metrical Phonology (Liberman and Prince)
- Dependency Phonology (Anderson and Durand)
- Lexical Phonology (Kiparsky)
- Underspecification (Arcangeli)
- Feature Geometry (Sagey, Clements)
- Govemment Phonology (Kaye, Lowenstamm and Vergnaud)
- Articulatory Phonology (Browman and Goldstein)
- Particle Phonology (Schane)
- Cognitive Phonology (Lakoff)
- Prosodic Phonology (Nespor and Vogel)
- Moraic Phonology (Hayes)
- Harmonic Phonology (Goldsmith)
- Optimality Theory (Prince and Smolensky)
- Declarative Phonology (Bird and Klein)

Bibliography
O’Grady, William, Michael Dobrovolsky, Mark Aronoff, eds Contemporary Linguistics. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997.
Delahunty, Gerald P. and James J. Garvey eds. (1994). Language, Grammar and Communication: A Course for Teachers of English. New York: McGraw Hill.
Joint European Website for Education in Language and Speech. 2003. HLTCentral. 10 November 2003. <http://www.hltcentral.org/page-823.0.shtml>.

Suggested Readings
Anderson, S. R. (1985). Phonology in the Twentieth Century. Chicago, London: University of Chicago Press.
Archangeli, D. and Langendoen, D.T. (Eds.) (1997). Optimality Theory: An Overview. Oxford: Blackwell.
Carr, Ph. (1993). Phonology. Basingstoke: MacMillan.
Clark, J. and Yallop, C. (1995). An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.
Clements, G. N. and Keyser, S.J. (1983). CV Phonology. A generative theory of the syllable. Cambridge/Mass.: The MIT Press.
Durand, J. (1990). Generative and Non-Linear Phonology. London, New York: Longman.
Goldsmith, J. (1989). Autosegmental and Metrical Phonology. Oxford: Blackwell.
Harris, J. (1994). English sound structure. Oxford: Blackwell.
Hawkins, P. (1984). Introducing phonology. London: Hutchinson & Co.
Hyman, L. M. (1975). Phonology. Theory and Analysis. New York-Montreal-London: Holt.
Katamba, F. (1989). An Introduction to Phonology. London: Longman.
Kaye, J. (1989). Phonology: a Cognitive View. Hillsdale N.J., London: Erlbaum.
Kenstowicz, M. (1994). Phonology in Generative Grammar. Cambridge MA, Oxford: Blackwell.
Kenstowicz, M. and Kisseberth, C. (1979). Generative Phonology: Description and Theory. San Diego: Academic Press, Inc.
Lass, R. (1984). Phonology. An introduction to basic concepts. Cambridge: University Press.
McCarthy, John J. (2002). A Thematic Guide to Optimality Theory. Cambridge: University Press.
Postal, Paul M. (1968).Aspects of Phonological Theory. New York: Harper and Row.
Roca, I. (1994). Generative Phonology. London and New York: Routledge.
Roach, P. (1983). English phonetics and phonology. A practical course. Tutor's book. Cambridge: University Press.
Schane, S. A. (Ed.) (1973). Generative Phonology. Englewood Cliffs.
Spencer, A. (1996). Phonology. Oxford: Blackwell

Morphology (download pdf of outline and bibliography)

Mariana Caballero
13 November 2003

What is morphology?
Morphology is the study of the structure of the word, one of the most fundamental units of linguistic structure. It is the study of how words are formed, how the parts of words relate to each other, and how words themselves relate to each other.

BASIC CONCEPTS
Morphemes: Morphemes are the smallest meaningful pieces of language that make up words. They carry information about meaning or function. Words may consist of one or more morphemes.
- Bound morphemes: they need to be attached to a free morpheme and cannot stand alone as a word. Example: Cats
- Free morphemes: are those which can stand alone as a word. Example: Cat.
- Morph: it is the term used to distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morpheme.
- Simple words: words that consist of a single morpheme. Example: Cat.
- Complex words: contain two or more morphemes. Example: Cat s.
Words: They are the smallest free forms found in language.
Lexicon: is a speaker’s mental dictionary, which contains information about the syntactic properties, meaning, and phonological representation of a language’s words.
Allomorphs: are variants of a morpheme. Example: a cat; an animal. They can also depend on phonological facts, such as the pronunciation of the following plurals: cats /s/, dogs /z/, judges /?z/.

WORD STRUCTURE

Root: is the core or the word and carries the major component of its meaning. Typically they belong to a lexical category—usually noun, verb, and adjective.
Affix: does not belong to a lexical category and is always a bound morpheme.
noun verb noun
Teach er modern ize book s
root affix root affix root affix
(verb) (adj.) (noun)

AFFIXATION: is the addition of an affix.
Prefix: an affix attached to the front of its base
Suffix: an affix attached to the end of its base.
Infix: a type of affix that occurs within a base. They are far less common.
dis agree ment s
prefix root suffix suffix

CLITICIZATION: occurs attaching clitics to a word.
Clitics: are short unstressed forms that are pronounced together with another element as if the two were a single unit. Example: ‘m for am, ‘s for is, and ‘re for are.
- enclitics: clitics that attach to the end or a preceding word
- proclitics: those that attach to the beginning of a following word.

INTERNAL CHANGE: is a process that substitutes one nonmorphemic segment for another to mark a grammatical contrast.
Example: sing (present) sang (past)
foot (singular) feet (plural)

SUPPLETION: is a morphological process that replaces a morph by an entirely different morph in order to indicate a grammatical contrast.
Example: go went
be was were

STRESS AND TONE PLACEMENT: Sometimes a base can undergo a change in the placement of stress or tone to reflect a change in its category.
Example: implánt (verb) ímplant (noun)
impórt (verb) ímport (noun)
presént (verb) présent (noun)

REDUPLICATION: this morphological process (not in English) duplicates all or part of the base to which it applies to mark a grammatical or semantic contrast.
Example: Turkish: iji (well) iji iji (very well)
COMPOUNDING: is the combination of lexical categories (nouns, adjectives, verbs, or prepositions) to create a larger word.
Example: streetlight (noun + noun)
bluebird (adjective + noun)
washcloth (verb + noun)
outhouse (preposition + noun)

WORD FORMATION

DERIVATION
Derivation forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct from that of its base through the addition of an affix. Once formed, derived words may become independent lexical items that receive their own entry in a speaker’s lexicon.
The following are some English derivational affixes:

Complex derivations: Since derivations can apply more than once, it is posible to create multiple levels of word structure.
Example: act verb
act ive adjective
act ive ate verb
act ive ate ion noun

Constrains on derivation:
a. Derivation does not usually apply freely to all members of a given category.
b. Sometimes, a derivational affix is able to attach only to bases with particular phonological properties.

COMPOUNDING
This is another common way to build words in English. It is the combination of lexical categories (nouns, adjectives, verbs, or prepositions). With very few exceptions, the resulting compound word is a noun, a verb, or an adjective.
Head: is the morpheme that determines the category of the entire word. Usually, the final component determines the category of the entire word. Example: greenhouse is a noun.
Types of compounds:
a. Endocentric: denotes a subtype of the concept denoted by its head. Example: dog food is a type of food; cave man is a type of man.
b. Exocentric: the meaning of the compound does not follow from the meanings of its parts. Example: redhead is not a type of head, but a person with read hair; redneck is a person and not a type of neck.

OTHER TYPES OF WORD FORMATION
CONVERSION: is a process that assigns an already existing word to a new syntactic category. Even though it does not add an affix, conversion is often considered to be a type of derivation because of the change in category and meaning that it brings about.
Examples:
Verb derived from a Noun: ink (a contract); butter (the bread).
Noun derived from a Verb: (a building) pérmit; (an exciting) cóntest.
Verb derived from an Adjective: dirty (a shirt); empty (the box).

CLIPPING: is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.

Examples: Liz, Ron, Rob; prof for professor, phys-ed for physical education; doc, ad, auto.

BLENDS: are created from nonmorphemic parts of two already existing items. A blend is usually formed from the initial part of one word and the final part of a second one.
Examples:
brunch from breakfast and lunch
smog from smoke and fog
telethon from telephone and marathon
motel from motor and hotel
bit from binary digit
modem from modulator and demodulator.

BACKFORMATION: is a process that creates a new word by removing a real or supposed affix from another word in the language.

Examples:
resurrect from resurrection
enthuse from enthusiasm
donate from donation

ACRONYMS: are formed by taking the initial letters of the words in a phrase or title and pronouncing them as a word. This type of word formation is especially common in names or organizations and in military and scientific terminology.
Examples:
UNICEF for United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
NASA for National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
NATO for North Atlantic Treaty Organization

ONOMATOPOEIA: all languages have words that have been created to sound like the thing that they name. Examples: cuckoo, buzz, hiss, sizzle. Since onomatopoeic words are not exact phonetic copies of noises, their form can differ from language to language.
English Spanish
meow miau
woof guau
moo mu
bang pum

OTHER SOURCES:
a. Word manufacture or coinage: words can be created from scratch. This phenomenon is specially common in cases where industry requires a new and attractive name for a product. Examples: Kodak, Dacron, Orlon, and Teflon.
b. To create words from names. Examples: Kleenex for ‘facial tissue’; Xerox for ‘photocopy’.

INFLECTION
It is the modification of a word’s form to indicate the grammatical subclass to which it belongs. Example: the –s in books marks the plural subclass.

THEORIES

Pre-Generative Approaches
- Morphological Typology
- Structuralist Theories
Early Generative Approaches
- The Standard Theory
- Chomsky’s “Remarks on Nominalization”
- Halle’s “Prolegomena”
- Siegel’s Level-Ordering Hypothesis
- Aronoff’s theory of word formation in Generative Grammar.
- McCarthy’s Theory
Nonlinear Approaches to Morphology
- McCarthy’s theory
- Reduplication
Later Generative Theories
- Lieber’s “Organization of the Lexicon”
- Anderson’s “Extended Word-and-Paradigm” theory

Bibliography
O’Grady, William, Michael Dobrovolsky, Mark Aronoff, eds Contemporary Linguistics. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997.
Spencer, Andrew. 1991. Morphological Theory. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.

Suggested Readings
Anderson, Stephen. 1988. “Morphological Theory”. In Linguistics: The Cambridge Survey. Vol. 1. Edited by F. Newmeyer, 146-91. London: Cambridge University Press.
Aronoff, Mark. 1976. Word Formation in Generative Grammar. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Aronoff, Mark. 1994. Morphology by Itslef: Stems and Inflectional Classes. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Bauer, L. 1983. English Word-Formation. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Cahill, Lynne. 1990. Syllable-based morphology. In Proceedings of COLING-90, Vol.3, 48-53.
Carstairs-McCarthy, Andrew. 1992. Contemporary Morphology. London: Routledge.
Gleason, H. 1955/1961. An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Jensen, John. 1990. Morphology: Word Structure in Generative Grammar. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Katamba, Francis. 1993. Morphology. London: Macmillan.
Kiparsky, Paul. 1982. Lexical Phonology and Morphology. In Linguistics in the Morning Calm. Seoul: Hanshin. 3-91.
Klavans, Judith. 1985. The Independence of Syntax and Phonology in cliticization. Language 61: 95-120.
McCarthy, John and Alan Prince. 1998. Prosodic Morphology. In Andrew Spencer and Arnold Zwicky (eds.), The Handbook of Morphology. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. 283-305.
Scalise, Sergio. 1988. Inflection and Derivation. Linguistics 26: 561-581.

Sociolinguistics (download pdf of outline and bibliography)

Mariana Caballero
25 November 2003

What is sociolinguistics?
Sociolinguistics is a subdiscipline of linguistics that treats the social aspects of language.

• The term first appeared in the 1950s as a way to bring together the perspectives of linguists and sociologists.
• In the 1960s and 1970s it gained importance and is still doing so today.
• Sociolinguistics is a recent subdiscipline and much work still needs to be done.
“Sociolinguistics has close connections with the social sciences, in particular, sociology, anthropology, social psychology, and education. It encompasses the study of multilingualism, social dialects, conversational interaction, attitudes to language, language change, and much more” (Romaine ix).

VARIATION

Language variation: the ways language differs across social settings.
- Standard language: is a variety that ranks above the others. It is the main or only written language. It is more fixed and resistant to change than any other variety in the community. It is used in school, print, mass media, taught to the non-native speakers as a foreign language, and associated with wealth, education, literature, political leadership and high social status.
- Sociolects: are subdivisible into several smaller categories: socioeconomic status, gender, ethnic group, age, occupation.
- Regional varieties: differ from each other systematically in terms of lexical or phonological criteria.
- Registers: or functional speech varieties, are bits of talk that are appropriate to particular speech situations. They can be casual, formal, technical, simplified, etc.

There are different kinds of variation:
• Phonetic: For example, [t,d,n,s,z] are dental in some New York City dialects.
• Phonological: For example, the difference between caught and cot for some Americans, not others.
• Morphological: For example, “hisself” for “himself”, “theirselves” for “themselves”.
• Syntactic: For example, right used as an adverb in Appalachian English (This is right delicious).
• Semantic (vocabulary choice): For example, pop, soda pop, coke, soft drink, “dope” in parts of South.

DIALECT

Dialect: Is any variety of a language characterized by systematic differences in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary from other varieties of the same language
Examples:
British English American English
Lay by Rest area
Petrol Gasoline
Lorry Truck
Minerals Soft drinks
Lift Elevator
Flat Apartment
Bobby Police officer
Dustbin Trash can

Speech community: can be a small town, village, or even a club or as large as a nation or a group of nations. Its members share a particular language as well as the norms for the appropriate use of their language in social context.
Standard Dialect: is the variety of speaking and writing granted the most public prestige.
Non-Standard Dialect: is a variety that has not general public prestige and that differs from standard varieties in grammar and vocabulary.
Idiolect is a dialect spoken by one person. We all have differences in the way we speak regarding the rest of the people.
Accent is a certain form of a language spoken by a subgroup of speakers of that language which is defined by phonological features.

WE ALL SPEAK A DIALECT, AND WE ALL HAVE AN ACCENT
What is the difference between a language and a dialect?
Dialect is used to indicate a subordinate variety of a language.
A regional dialect is a variety associated with a place.
A social dialect is a variety with boundaries of a social nature.

What is diglossia?
It is the situation in which two languages or dialects in a bilingual community are used differently according to different social situations.
Janet Holmes defines diglossia as having three crucial features:
1. In the same language, used in the same community, there are two distinct varieties. One is regarded as high (H) and the other low (L).
2. Each is used for distinct functions.
3. No one uses the high (H) in everyday conversation.

Why are there different dialects?
There are social and historical conditions that surround language change. Some of the main factors are:
• Settlement
• Migration routs
• Geographical factors
• Language contact
• Economic ecology
• Social stratification
• Communication networks
• Group reference
• Personal identity

There is also a linguistic explanation for the existence of dialects:
• Rule extension
• Analogy
• The transparency principle
• Grammaticalization
• Pronunciation phenomena
• Words and word meanings

PIDGINS AND CREOLES

A pidgin is a language developed by speakers of different languages who need to communicate. It has a very simple structure and doesn’t last a long period of time.
When the pidgin is an evolved form of language and has native speakers, it becomes a Creole.

Can you guess what language this is?
These lines are taken from a famous comic strip in Papua New Guinea:
"Sapos yu kaikai planti pinat, bai yu kamap strong olsem phantom."
"Fantom, yu pren tru bilong mi. Inap yu ken helpim mi nau?"
"Fantom, em i go we?"
Translation:
'If you eat plenty of peanuts, you will come up strong like the phantom.'
'Phantom, you are a true friend of mine. Are you able to help me now?'
1Where did he go?'

It is the Creole of Papua New Guinea, Tok Pisin, which is the national language.
Superstrate language: the dominant language that provides most of the vocabulary of the pidgin.
Substrate languages: these are the other minority languages in the pidgin.

Can you guess what major language (the superstrate) contributed to the vocabulary in each of these Creoles? This table is taken from Janet Holmes, " An Introduction to Sociolinguistics":
a. mo pe aste sa banan
b. de bin alde luk dat big tri
c. a waka go a wosu
d. olmaan i kas-im chek
e. li pote sa bay mo
f. ja fruher wir bleiben
g. dis smol swain i bin go fo maket I am buying the banana

they always looked for a big tree
he walked home
the old man is cashing a check
he brought that for me
Yes at first we remained
this little pig went to market

ANSWERS:
a. French based Seychelles Creole
b. English based Roper River Creole
c. English based Saran
d. English based Cape York Creole
e. French based Guyanais
f. German based Papua New Guinea Pidgin German
g. English based Cameroon Pidgin
<http://logos.uoregon.edu/explore/socioling/pidgin.html>

LANGUAGE AND GENDER

Gender-exclusive differentiation refers to the radically different speech varieties used by men and women in particular societies. In these societies, a woman or a man may, except in special circumstances, not be allowed to speak the variety of the other gender.
Gender-variable differentiation is much more common in the languages of the world than is gender-exclusivity. This phenomenon is reflected in the relative frequency with which men and women use the same lexical items or other linguistic features.

Can you tell who, most likely, is speaking?
"Wow what a beautiful home!"
"That outfit looks lovely on you!"
"Nice coat."
"Where can I find a pair of shoes like that, I like them."
"This is a super cool shirt, I love it."
"This shirt is cool."
<http://logos.uoregon.edu/explore/socioling/gender2.html>

These are examples of how in North American societies, women use more frequently politeness formulas.
Also, some studies suggest that women use more verbal hedges than do men. These are words such as perhaps or maybe which are less assertive in conversations than utterances without hedges.

SPEECH STYLE, SLANG AND JARGON

Speech style is the way of speaking according to the social situation.
Slang is the new colloquial vocabulary, usually used by one group of speakers.
Jargon is a kind of "trade slang," or specialized vocabulary used by a particular profession, club, academic discipline, sport, or other activity or organization. Example: “hacker jargon”.
Argot is the word used to denote “secret language” and very often is interchangeable with jargon. Example: “gay lingo”.

THEORETICAL SOCIOLINGUISTICS

It is concerned with formal models and methods for analyzing the structure of speech communities and speech varieties, and providing a general account of communicative competence.

APPLIED SOCIOLINGUISTICS

Applied sociolinguistics deals with the social an political implications of fundamental inequalities in language use in various areas of public life.

ANOTHER APPROACH

The field is often divided into macro and micro-sociolinguistics.
Macro-sociolinguistics is also called the sociology of language. It takes society as its starting point and deals with language as a pivotal factor in the organization of communities.
Micro-sociolinguistics begins with language and treats social forces as essential factors influencing the structure of languages.

Bibliography
Fasold, Ralph. The Sociolinguistics of Language: Introduction to Scoiolinguistics Volume II. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1996.
“Language and Linguistics”. College of Arts and Letters. 18 Nov. 2003. <http://soe.csusb.edu/preintern/Engprep/linguistics/linguistics_index.html>.
O’Grady, William, Michael Dobrovolsky, Mark Aronoff, eds Contemporary Linguistics. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997.
Romaine, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. New York: OUP, 2000.
“Sociolinguistics”. Explore Linguistics. 25 Feb., 1997. 18 Nov. 2003. <http://logos.uoregon.edu/explore/socioling/>.
“Sociolinguistics”. 18 Nov. 2003. <http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~kdk/201/spring02/slides/variation-4up.pdf>.
Wolfram, Walt and Natalie Schilling-Estes. American English. Malden: Blackwell Publishers Inc., 2000.

Suggested Readings
Labov, William. “The Organization of Dialect Diversity in North America.” <http://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/ICSLP4.html>.
Rader, Walter. “The Online Slang Dictionary”. 9 Jan. 2003. 23 Nov. 2003. <http://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~wrader/slang/>.
“Sociolinguistics Resources.” 23 Nov. 2003. <http://www.utexas.edu/courses/linguistics/resources/socioling/>.
“Sociolinguistics”. 23 Nov. 2003. <http://www.unc.edu/~gerfen/Ling30Sp2002/sociolinguistics.html>.
Carver, C. M. American Regional Dialects. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. 1987.
Fasold, R. The sociolinguistics of society. New York: Blackwell 1984.
Fasold R. The sociolinguistics of language. Cambridge. MA; Blackwell 1990.
Parker, F. and K. Riley. Linguistics for non-Linguists. Boston. Allyn and Bacon, 2000.
Trudgil, Peter. Applied Sociolinguistics. London; Orlando: Academic Press, 1984.
White, I. Universal Grammar Second Language Acquisition. Amsterdam: John Benjamins 1989.
Wolfram, W. and Fasold, R. The Study of Social Dialects in American English. Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice Hall 1974.
Wolfram, W. and Shilling-Estes. American English: Dialects and Variation. Malden, MA. Blackwell, 1998.

Applied Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition (download pdf of outline and bibliography)

HISTORY

The Classical Period (beginning 300 BCE)

- Roman Instruction- Bilingual Greek-Latin instruction beginning at home continuing through school
- Quintillian’s Influence- advocated practical, contextualized, instruction underpinned with valid usage principles

The Medieval Period

- Grammarians begin to focus on logic
- Europeans rely on grammar to introduce Latin to children
- One learns vernacular at home, followed by Latin in school, which is approached via grammar, writing skills are developed with reference to well-written prose similar to that which the student will ultimately have to produce himself
- Two goals: prepare student to function in school and function in his profession

The Renaissance

Language Instruction in Europe
- grammar and literature become two separate subjects
- Expectation that educated men will acquire a foreign language in addition to Latin

Influence of Erasmus and His Contemporaries
- Language should be studied inductively through exposure to discourse
- Grammar rules are reserved for advanced work
- 3 Stages for language induction
o conversation, naming, and describing
o conversational emphasis on dialogues and descriptions
o reading receives emphasis along with a focus on grammar

Influence of Comenius and Other Seventeenth-Century Educators
- systematic graded presentation of syntax
- Inductive instruction in grammar
- Lexical mastery through controlled vocabulary and visual association
- Subject matter should appeal to students
- Modern languages should have priority over classical languages
- Languages should be learned by practice rather than by rules

The Eighteenth Century

- Demise of Latin as the medium of instruction
- Grammar becomes important for the intellectual stimulation in provides
- Recognition that most European languages must have developed from a common source

The Nineteenth Century

Grammar-Translation Method- (see below)

The Natural Method
- Challenges value of translation and efficiency of formal grammar study
- Student (like a child at home) is immersed in the language
- Young and old learn the same way

The Phonetic Method- movement to represent all languages phonetically

The Twentieth Century—1900 to WWI

The Direct Method
- Favor instruction in modern foreign languages rather than in classical languages
- Speech, not writing, is viewed as the basis of language
- Pronunciation, not phonetics, is taught in class
- Sequence materials from easy to difficult
- Young and old learn in different ways

The Influence of Early Methodologists
- Henry Sweet- begin with spoken language, but use translation as a tool later
- Harold E. Palmer- rejects allegiance to any one theory of second language acquisition as well as the notion that inherent conflicts exist between methods: meticulously eclectic

Emergence of Audiolingual Methodology

WWII Influences
- Army Method- emphasis on spoken language and mastery of colloquial speech
Developments Following the War
- Recording devices and language labs are established in schools
- Total commitment to the new oral/aural methodology
Reasons for Audiolingual Success
- Scientific nature of the linguistic approach
- Unprecedented support from scholars in a variety of disciplines, teachers, and public
- Accompanied by carefully prepared materials
- Contextualized language practices in true-to-life situations

Reemergence of Eclecticism

The Eclipse of Audiolingualism- language as a rule-governed, with language acquisition
a creative process requiring considerable learner initiative rather than learner manipulation through mimicry, memorization, and over-learning
Commercial Language Schools- help maintain audiolignialism as a component of the
new eclectic approach

THEORY

Grammar Translation Model

Characteristics
• Classes taught in the mother tongue, little use of target language
• Vocabulary taught in the form of lists of isolated words
• Elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar
• Grammar provides rules for putting words together, instruction focuses on form and inflection of words
• Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early
• Little attention is given to the content of texts—they are exercises in grammatical analysis
• Little or no attention is given to pronunciation
Benefits
• Requires few specialized skills for teachers
• Tests of grammar rules and translations are easy to construct
• Ease of grading tests
Criticisms- does virtually nothing to enhance a student’s communicative ability in the Language

Contrastive Analysis (rooted in behavioralism and structuralism)
Claims
• Principle barrier to second language acquisition is the interference of the first language system with the second language system
• Structural analysis of the two languages will yield a taxonomy of linguistic contrasts between them
• This will enable linguists to predict difficulties a learner will encounter
Benefits
• Gross predictions can be made and anticipated
• Teachers can utilize their knowledge of the target and native languages to understand sources of error
Criticisms
• Strong version of CA that have been worked out by linguists have found no support in studies (Spanish speakers for plurals in a similar same way as English, yet they go through a plural-less stage when learning English)
• Inadequate, theoretically and practically, to predict the interference problems of a language learner

Error Analysis
Characteristics
• Examination of errors attributable to all possible sources, not just those which result from negative transfer of the native language
• Errors arise from interlingual errors of interference from the native tongue, intralingual errors within the target language, the sociolinguistic context of communication, psychololinguistic strategies, and countless affective variables
Criticisms
• Teachers become preoccupied with noticing errors losing site of positive reinforcement of clear, free communication
• Overstressing production data: language is speaking and listening, writing and reading
• Can focus too closely on specific languages rather than viewing universal aspects of language

Silent Way

Claims
• Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers or repeats what is to be learned
• Learning is facilitated by accompanying physical objects
• Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned
Benefits- Students benefit from discovery learning as they work things out on their own.
Criticisms
• Teacher is too distant to encourage a communicative atmosphere
• Students often need more guidance and overt correction than the Silent Way permits

Monitor Model/Input Hypothesis (Krashen)

Claims
• Precise manner in which humans learn languages is invisible and researchers can follow it only in the most rudimentary manner
• Motives, needs, attitudes, and emotional states filter what one hears and therefore affect the rate and quality of language learning
• If the learner is at a level of n, the input that he/she understands should contain n+1 in order to challenge him/her to make progress.
• Three internal factors operate as people learn a second language
o Filter- affective factors that screen out certain parts of learner’s language environments
o Organizer- part of the language learner’s mind which works subconsciously to organize the new language system. It gradually builds up the rule system of the new language in specific ways and is used to generate sentences not learned through memorization (LAD)

? Transitional Constructions- interim structures learners regularly use during the acquisition of a particular target language. Observations suggest that many structures develop in a systematic manner.
o Monitor- part of the learner’s system that consciously processes information. When the learner memorizes grammar rules and tires to apply them consciously during conversation, for example, we say the person is relying on the monitor
Benefits
• Clear distinction between acquisition and learning
Criticisms
• Fuzzy distinction between subconscious (acquisition) and conscious (learning) processes
• Claims are exaggerated due to oversimplicity

Natural Approach (offshoot of Stephen Krashen’s theories)
Claims
• Learners benefit from delaying production until speech “emerges”
• Learners should be as relaxed as possible
• A great deal of communication and “acquisition” should take place, as opposed to analysis
• Preproduction stage- development of listening comprehension skills
• Early production stage- marked with errors as students struggle with the language, but the teacher focuses on meaning not form
• Final stage- longer stretches of discourse, involving more complex games, role-plays, open-ended dialogues, discussions, and extended small-group work
Benefits- Listening without production is a good way to become accustomed to a
language, to a certain extent
Criticisms
• Delay of oral production
• Students are ready to emerge at different times
• Too sparse in the correction of error

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Textbooks in Second Language Acquisition

Bowen, Donald J., Harold Madsen, and Ann Hilferty. TESOL Techniques and Procedures. New York: Newbury House Publishers, 1985.
Brown, H.Douglas. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hal, 1987.
Cook, V. Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. 3rd ed. London: Edward Arnold, 2001.
_____. Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition. London: MacMillan (Modern Linguistics Series), 1993.
Doughty, C.J, M.H. Long. The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Blackwell (Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics), 2002.
Dulay, Heidi, Marina Burt, and Stephan Krashen. Language Two. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982.
Ellis, R. The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.
_____. (1997) SLA Research and Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press (Oxford Applied Linguistics).
Johnson, K. An Introduction to Foreign Language Learning and Teaching. London: Longman (Learning About Language), 2001.
Klein, W. Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics), 1986.
McLaughlin, Barry. Theories of Second-Language Learning. Baltimore: Hodder & Stoughton, 1987.
Mitchell, R. and F. Myles. Second Language Learning Theories. London: Arnold, 1998.
Scovel, T. Learning New Languages. A Guide to Second Language Acquisition. Boston: Heinle, 2001.
Sharwooed Smith, M. Second Language Learning: Theoretical Foundations. Harlow: Longman. (Applied Linguistics and Language Study), 1994.

Age in Second Language Acquisition

Bialystok, E., and B. Miller. (1999) "The problem of age in second language acquisition: influences from language, structure and task", Bilingualism: Language and Cognition (Cambridge) 2, 2: 127-145.
Birdsong, D. (Ed.) (1999) Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period Hypothesis. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Cenoz, J. (2002) "Age differences in foreign language learning", ITL Review of Applied Linguistics (Leuven) 135-136: 125-42.
Hyltenstam, K. and N. Abrahamsson. (2000) "Who can become native-like in a second language? All, some, none?", Studia Linguistica 54, 2: 150-166.
Scovel, T. (2000) "A critical review of the critical period research", Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 20: 213-223.
Singleton, D. (2001) "Age and second language acquisition", Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 21: 77-89.

Psychological Factors in Second Language Acquisition

Brown, D. (1975) "Affective variables in second language acquisition", Language Learning 23,2: 231-244.
Gardner, R.C., and P.D. Macintyre. (1992) "A student's contribution to second language learning. Part 1: Cognitive variables", Language Teaching 25,4: 211-220.
_____. (1993) "A student's contributions to second-language learning. Part II: Affective variables", Language Teaching 26,1: 1-11.
_____. (1991) "Methods and results in the study of anxiety and language learning: A review of the literature", Language Learning 41,1: 85-117.
Sparks, R., and L. Ganschow. (2001) "Aptitude for learning a foreign language", Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 21: 90-111.
Wakamoto, N. (2000) "Language learning strategy and personality variables: focussing on extroversion and introversion", International Review of Applied Linguistics, IRAL 38, 1: 71-81.

Social Factors in Second Language Acquisition

Loveday, L. (1982) The Sociolinguistics of Learning and Using a Non-native Language. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Preston, D.R. (1989) Sociolinguistics and Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Pride, J.B. (Ed.) (1981) Sociolinguistic Aspects of Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Transfer in Second Language Acquisition

Gass, S. and L. Selinker. (Eds.) (1983) Language Transfer in Language Learning. Rowley, M.A.: Newbury House. Revised Edition: Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1992.
Odlin, T. (1989) Language Transfer. Cross-Linguistic Influence in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Pres (The Cambridge Applied Linguistics Series).
Ringbom, H. (1987) The Role of the First Language in Foreign Language Learning. Clevedon, Avon: Multilingual Matters.

Error Analysis

Corder, S.P. (1981) Error analysis and interlanguage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
James, C. (1998) Errors in Language Learning and Use. Exploring Error Analysis. Harlow: Longman (Applied Linguistics and Language Study).
Richards, J.C. (1974) "A non contrastive approach to error analysis", in RICHARDS, J.C. (Ed.) Error Analysis. Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition. London: Longman (Applied Linguistics and Language Study).
_____. (Ed.) (1974) Error Analysis. Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition. London: Longman (Applied Linguistics and Language Study). pp. 64-94.

Interlanguage

Ellis, R. (1985) "Sources of variability in interlanguage", Applied Linguistics 6,2: 118-131.
Selinker, L. (1992) Rediscovering Interlanguage. London: Longman (Applied Linguistics and Language Study).
Tarone, E. (2000) "Still wrestling with "context" in interlanguage theory", Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 20: 182-198.

Universal Grammar

Archibald, J. (Ed.) (2000) Second Language Acquisition and Linguistic Theory. Oxford: Blackwell.
Eubank, L. (Ed.) (1991) Point Counterpoint. Universal Grammar in the Second Language. Amsterdam: John Benjamins (Language Acquisition and Language Disorders,3).
Gass, S.M. and J. Schachter. (Eds.) (1989) Linguistic Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (The Cambridge Applied Linguistics Series).
Herschenson, J. (2000) The Second Time Around - Minimalism and L2 Acquisition. Amsterdam: John Benjamins (Language Acquisition and Language Disorders, 21).
White, L. (2003) Second Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics).

Research Methods in Second Language Acquisition

Brown, J.D. (1988) Understanding Research in Second Language Learning. A Teacher's Guide to Statistics and Research Design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (New Directions in Language Teaching).
Brown, J.D. and T.S. Rogers. (2002) Doing Second Language Research. Oxford: Oxford University Press (Oxford Handbooks for Language Teachers).
Gass, S. M. (2001) "Innovations in second language research methods", Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 21: 221-232.
Lightbown, P.M. (2000) "Classroom SLA research and second language teaching", Applied Linguistics 21, 4: 431-462.
Scholfield, P. (1995) Quantifying language: a researcher's and teacher's guide to gathering language data and reducing it to figures. Clevedon, Avon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Sorace, A., S. Gass, and L. Selinker. (1994) Second Language Learning Data Analysis. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Wray, A., K. Trott, and A. Bloomer. (1998) Projects in Linguistics. A Practical Guide to Researching Language. London - New York: Arnold - Oxford University Press. [5. Second Language Acquisition]

Internet Resources for Applied Linguistics

Applied Linguistics
http://www3.oup.co.uk/applij/

Applied Linguistics Virtual Library
http://alt.venus.co.uk/VL/AppLingBBK/welcome.html

Center for Applied Linguistics
http://www.cal.org/

Contextual Factors in Second Language Acquisition
http://www.cal.org/ericcll/digest/0005contextual.html

Defense Language Institute English Language Center
http://www.dlielc.org/

Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center
http://pom-www.army.mil/

ERIC Digests
http://www.cal.org/ericcll/digest/

Gigantic Bibliography for Second Language Acquisition
http://privatewww.essex.ac.uk/~vcook/slabib.html

Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics
http://www.gial.org/

Institute for Applied Linguistics
http://appling.kent.edu/

Krashen, Stephen D. Books and Articles
http://www.sdkrashen.com/

Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition
http://www.sk.com.br/sk-krash.html

Overview of Second Language Acquisition Theory
http://www.nwrel.org/request/2003may/overview.html

Resources in Applied Linguistics
http://www.surrey.ac.uk/ELI/external.html

Studies in Second Language Acquisition
http://www.indiana.edu/~ssla/

Anthropological Linguistics (download pdf of outline and bibliography)

Kelly Cameron
25 November 2003

Timeline
100,000 or so years ago — Some theorize that this is when language developed, emerging with “modern-looking” humans (Neanderthals are said not to have had the anatomy needed for speech).
5,000 or so years ago — Earliest writing systems appear.
5,000 to 6,000 or so years ago — People are speaking what is now called “proto-Indo-European,” the ancestor of the Indo-European language family, from which the Germanic — which includes English, Dutch, German, Icelandic, Danish, Norwegian and Swedish — language family is derived. However, where people are speaking PIE is debated — some say its origins are in what is now the Ukraine, some say it began in what is now Turkey. The Bantu language family — spoken by about 80 million people — most likely originated in what is now Nigeria.
1846 — Smithsonian Institution founded.
1869— John Wesley Powell writes Classification of North American Languages.
1879 — Bureau of American Ethnology founded.
1888 — The first issue of American Anthropologist appears.
1901— American Anthropological Association forms.
1911— Franz Boas publishes Handbook of American Indian Languages.
1933 — Edward Sapir publishes “Languages,” the introduction to the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences.
1960s— anthropological linguistics becomes own discipline, separates from the linguistics and modern languages disciplines.
1964 — Dell Hymes publishes Language in Culture and Society: A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology, what is widely considered to be the first comprehensive reader in linguistic anthropology.

What is anthropological linguistics?
Although it is sometimes called anthropological linguistics , in most texts it is referred to as linguistic anthropology, which is the study of the role of languages in culture. Linguistic anthropologists study how cultures use language in their everyday social action, in “telling a story, asking for a favor, greeting, showing respect, praying, giving directions, reading, insulting, praising, arguing in court, making a toast, or explaining a political agenda” (Duranti 1).
Linguistic anthropologists study a group of people — this can be anything from neighbors who live on one city block to an entire village — to find patterns in their language. Anthropological linguists seek to understand how speakers of language understand their own languages. For example, native English speakers understand that while ‘electric’ is pronounced ‘elektrik,’ the word ‘electricity’ is not pronounced ‘eletrikity.’
Many linguistic anthropologists believe the human being is hard-wired to speak a language, whatever language is spoken by his or her parents or caregivers. But no one has exactly located where in the human brain this wiring is located. But that isn’t what is the most important to anthropological linguists — what is most important is the idea that all culture stems from language, as it is the basis of our ability to use symbols.
In the early 1900s, linguistics was considered merely as another tool for anthropologists working in the field. But Noam Chomsky’s work in generative grammar changed that, and now anthropological linguistics is considered its own discipline, although linguists can be found in various departments, including modern languages, English, anthropology and linguistics.

Why is anthropological linguistics important?
Anthropological linguistics began as a way to record languages on the decline, languages that are in danger of dying out. In North America, aboriginal tribes were, and still are, the object of study. In Africa, many languages of the Bantu language family are studied.
Important Figures in Anthropological Linguistics

John Wesley Powell (1834-1902)
• a natural scientist also trained as a geologist.
• saw a connection between the physical landscape and the culture of its inhabitants.
• thought of linguistics as a useful tool for classifying cultures.
• collected American Indian word lists, ‘myths,’ and descriptions of ritual life.
Franz Boas (1858-1942)
• known as the father of North American anthropology.
• is credited for training the first generation of American anthropologists, including Edward Sapir and Margaret Mead.
• the concept of cultural relativism is credited to Boas; he applied this idea to linguistics as well. Assumptions should not be made about certain cultures based on the cultures studied before. Boas rejected Powell’s using of language to classify American Indian tribes; he disagreed with the evolutionists, who believed that universal law applied to all human cultures.
• his ideas changed the methodologies used in anthropological linguistics; fieldwork should be done in the native tongue of the people being studied, not through an interpreter or by using a pidgin language.
• did not view American Indian languages as primitive; just because certain linguistic forms were absent, that did not mean the culture did not have the capacity for abstract thought. Modern implications — just because certain Bandu-speaking people don’t have words for “computer,” doesn’t mean that culture does not have the capacity to create one. A language is only as complex as a society needs it to be.

Edward Sapir (1884-1939)
• teacher of Margaret Mead.
• because some ways that languages work cannot be explained as a matter of functionality, Sapir surmised that they must function on an asthetic level, whatever the asthetic ideals of the given society. For example, in English, we mark plurals in a way that makes no logical sense. We say, “six women.” Because six marks the number of women sufficiently, why do we change “woman” to “women?” In Chinese, nouns are not changed to mark the number — only a quantifier such as “several” is added.
• with student Benjamin Lee Whorf created what is known as the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, the idea that language influences culture as much as culture influences language. Today’s linguists generally do not fully accept the hypothesis, but recognize that certain features of language may have an influence on patterns of thought. Modern implications — the argument over whether the pronoun “he” should stand for all people, male and female. Critics say this reinforces a male-dominated society.
Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)
• Like his teacher, Sapir, Whorf carried on the idea of linguistic relativity.
• Concentrated on the overt and covert aspects of linguistics, for example, the way gender is expressed in a society. The articles in French and Spanish make it clear whether the subject is male or female, as in el vs. la or le vs. la. Gender in these languages is overt. However, in English, gender is often a covert category, as in, “I met my friend at the cafe. He ordered coffee.” Whorf wanted to understand how these overt and covert categories effected how people thought or acted.

Noam Chomsky (b. 1928)
http://www.cognet.mit.edu/library/books/chomsky/chomsky
• attacked American structuralism and behaviorist concepts of language.
• research concentrated on the competence — knowledge of language — rather than performance —use of language.
• known for the concept of generative grammar — “models what a native speaker does in his head” (Vantine).
• spent three years doing mathematical analysis of Hebrew.
• credited for creating the means to create computer programs.
Other linguistic anthropologists of note:
Dell Hymes, Mary Haas, Leonard Bloomfield, Harry Hoijer

Bibliography
Bakker, Peter. A Language of Our Own: The Genesis of Michif, the Mixed Cree-French Language of the Canadian Metis. Oxford Studies in Anthropological
Linguistics. Ed. William Bright. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Blount, Ben G. and Mary Sanches, eds. Sociocultural Dimensions of Language Change: Language, Thought, and Culture, Advances in the Study of Cognition. New York: Academic Press, 1977.
Boas, Franz, ed. General Anthropology. Boston: D.C. Heath and Company, 1938.
Dixon, R.M.V. The Rise and Fall of Languages. Cambridge: UP, 1997.
Duranti, Alessandro, ed. Linguistic Anthropology: A Reader. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 2001.
Ember, Carol R. and Melvin Ember. Anthropology, Seventh Edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1993.
Greenberg, Joseph H. Anthropological Linguistics: An Introduction. New York: Random House, 1968.
McCormack, William C. and Stephen A. Wurm, eds. Language and Man: Anthropological Issues. The Hague: Mouton Publishers, 1976.
McGee, R. Jon and Richard L. Warms, eds. Anthropological Theory: An Introductory History. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company, 1997.
Vantine, J. Liessman. Personal interview. 20 Nov. 2003.

Historical Linguistics (download pdf of outline and bibliography)

Alicia Godel
25 November 2003

Historical Linguistics

A Brief Introduction

Historical linguistics studies the differences in language between two points of times. In the late 18th century and early 19th century, historical linguistics became a viable study, coinciding with England’s colonization. While in India, Sir William Jones noted similiarities between sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and English.

During this time, the comparative method became popular. The comparative method observes systematic correspondences of sounds (or, in the case of extinct languages, letters of some alphabet) between a significant number of words with related meaning in two or more languages. When there are multiple occurrences, it isn’t due to chance; they must have developed from the same languages.

Historical Linguistics has multiple sub-divisions:

• Etymology: the study of origins and historical development of words
• Dialectology: the study of dialects and how they develop over time
• Phonology: the study of sounds and how they change over time
• Morphology: the study of how the formal means of expression change over time (languages with complex inflectional systems tend to be subject to a simplification process)
• Syntax: how characteristics of sentences structure change over time

Timeline of the History of the English Language

ca. 3000 B.C. Proto-Indo-European spoken in Baltic area.
(or Anatolia?)
ca. 1000 B.C. After many migrations, the various branches of Indo-European have become distinct. Celtic becomes most widespread branch of I.E. in Europe; Celtic peoples inhabit what is now Spain, France, Germany and England.
43 A.D. Roman occupation of Britain. Roman colony of "Britannia" established. Eventually, many Celtic Britons become Romanized. (Others continually rebel).
Early 5th century. Roman Empire collapses. Romans pull out of Britain and other colonies, attempting to shore up defense on the home front; but it's useless. Rome sacked by Goths.
ca. 410 A.D. First Germanic tribes arrive in England.
410-600 Settlement of most of Britain by Germanic peoples (Angles, Saxons, Jutes, some Frisians) speaking West Germanic dialects descended from Proto-Germanic. These dialects are distantly related to Latin, but also have a sprinkling of Latin borrowings due to earlier cultural contact with the Romans on the continent.
Celtic peoples, most of whom are Christianized, are pushed increasingly (despite occasional violent uprisings) into the marginal areas of Britain: Ireland, Scotland, Wales. Anglo-Saxons, originally sea-farers, settle down as farmers, exploiting rich English farmland.
By 600 A.D., the Germanic speech of England comprises dialects of a language distinct from the continental Germanic languages.
ca. 600-1100 THE OLD ENGLISH, OR ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD
ca. 600 Christianity introduced among Anglo-Saxons by St. Augustine, missionary from Rome. Irish missionaries also spread Celtic form of Christianity to mainland Britain.
793 First serious Viking incursions. Lindisfarne monastery sacked.
800 Charlemagne, king of the Franks, crowned Holy Roman Emperor; height of Frankish power in Europe. Wessex kings aspire to similar glory; want to unite all England, and if possible the rest of mainland Britain, under one crown (theirs).
840s-870s Viking incursions grow worse and worse. Large organized groups set up permanent encampments on English soil. Slay kings of Northumbria and East Anglia, subjugate king of Mercia. Storm York (Anglo-Saxon Eoforwic) and set up a Viking kingdom (Jorvik). Wessex stands alone as the last Anglo-Saxon kingdom in Britain.
871 Vikings move against Wessex. In six pitched battles, the English hold their own, but fail to repel attackers decisively. In the last battle, the English king is mortally wounded. His young brother, Alfred, who had distinguished himself during the battles, is crowned king.
871-876 Alfred builds a navy. The kings of Denmark and Norway have come to view England as ripe for the plucking and begin to prepare an attack.
876 Three Danish kings attack Wessex. Alfred prevails, only to be attacked again a few months later. His cause looks hopeless.
886 Under Alfred's terms of victory, England is partitioned into a part governed by the Anglo-Saxons (under the house of Wessex) and a part governed by the Scandinavians (some of whom become underlords of Alfred), divided by Watling Street. This became known as Danelaw. 15 years of peace follow; Alfred reigns over peaceful and prosperous kingdom. First called "Alfred the Great".
925 Athelstan crowned king. Height of Anglo-Saxon power. Athelstan reconquers York from the Vikings, and even conquers Scotland and Wales, heretofore ruled by Celts. Continues Alfred's mission of making improvemen ts in government, education, defense, and other social institutions.
10th century Danes and English continue to mix peacefully, and ultimately become indistinguishable. Many Scandinavian loanwords enter the language; English even borrows pronouns like them, their they.
1014 Denmark King Sveinn's young son Cnut (or Canute) crowned king of England. Cnut decides to follow in Alfred's footsteps, aiming for a peaceful and prosperous kingdom. Encourages Anglo-Saxon culture and literature. Even marries Aethelred's widow Emma, brought over from Normandy.
After Cnut's death his sons bicker over the kingdom. When they die without issue, the kingdom passes back to the house of Wessex, to young Edward, son of Aethelred and Emma, who had been raised in exile in Normandy. Edward is a pious, monkish man called "The Confessor".
Edward has strong partiality for his birthplace, Normandy, a duchy populated by the descendents of Romanized Vikings. Especially fond of young Duke William of Normandy. Edward is dominated by his Anglo-Saxon earls, especially powerful earl Godwin. Godwin's son, Harold Godwinson, becomes de facto ruler as Edward takes less and less interest in governing.
1066 Battle of Normandy

January. Edward dies childless, apparently recommending Harold Godwinson as successor. Harold duly chosen by Wessex earls, as nearest of kin to the crown is only an infant. Mercian and Northumbrian earls are hesitant to go along with choice of Harold.
William of Normandy claims that Harold once promised to support HIM as successor to Edward. Harold denies it. William prepares to mount an invasion. Ready by summer, but the winds are unfavorable for sailing.
September. Harald Hardradi of Norway decides this is a good time to attack England. Harold Godwinson rushes north and crushes Hardradi's army at Stamford Bridge.
The winds change, and William puts to sea. Harold rushes back down to the south coast to try to repel William's attack. Mercians and Northumbrians are supposed to march down to help him, but never do. They don't realize what's in store for them.
October. Harold is defeated and killed at the battle of Hastings.
December. William of Normandy crowned king of England in Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day.

ca. 1100-1500 THE MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD
1066-1075 English becomes the language of the lower classes (peasants and slaves). Norman French becomes the language of the court and propertied classes. The legal system is redrawn along Norman lines and conducted in French. Churches, monasteries gradually filled with French-speaking functionaries, who use French for record-keeping. After a while, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is no longer kept up. Authors write literature in French, not English. For all practical purposes English is no longer a written language.
Bilingualism gradually becomes more common, especially among those who deal with both upper and lower classes. Growth of London as a commercial center draws many from the countryside who can fill this socially intermediate role.
1204 The English kings lose the duchy of Normandy to French kings. England is now the only home of the Norman English.
1205 First book in English appears since the conquest.
1258 First royal proclamation issued in English since the conquest.
ca. 1300 Increasing feeling on the part of even noblemen that they are English, not French. Nobility begin to educate their children in English. French is taught to children as a foreign language rather than used as a medium of instruction.
1337 Start of the Hundred Years' War between England and France.
1362 English becomes official language of the law courts. More and more authors are writing in English.
ca. 1380 Chaucer writes the Canterbury tales in Middle English. the language shows French influence in thousands of French borrowings. The London dialect, for the first time, begins to be recognized as the "Standard", or variety of English taken as the norm, for all England. Other dialects are relegated to a less prestigious position, even those that earlier served as standards (e.g. the Wessex dialect of southwest England).
1474 William Caxton brings a printing press to England from Germany. Publishes the first printed book in England. Beginning of the long process of standardization of spelling.

1500-present THE MODERN ENGLISH PERIOD
1500-1650 Early Modern English develops. The Great Vowel Shift gradually takes place. There is a large influx of Latin and Greek borrowings and neologisms.
1611 King James Bible published, which has influenced English writing down to the present day.
1616 Shakespeare dies. Recognized even then as a genius of the English language. Wove native and borrowed words together in amazing and pleasing combinations.
1700s Classical period of English literature. The fashion for borrowing Latin and Greek words, and coining new words with Latin and Greek morphemes, rages unabated. Elaborate syntax matches elaborate vocabulary (e.g. writings of Samuel Johnson).
The rise of English purists, e.g. Jonathan Swift, who decried the 'degeneration' of English and sought to 'purify' it and fix it forever in unchanging form.
17th-19th centuries British imperialism. Borrowings from languages around the world.
Development of American English. By 19th century, a standard variety of American English develops, based on the dialect of the Mid-Atlantic states.
Establishment of English in Australia, South Africa, and India, among other British colonial outposts.
19th century Recognition (and acceptance) by linguistic scholars of the ever-changing nature of language. Discovery of the Indo-European language family. Late in century: Recognition that all languages are fundamentally the same in nature; no "primitive" or "advanced" languages.
19th-20th centuries Scientific and Industrial Revolutions. Development of technical vocabularies. Within a few centuries, English has gone from an island tongue to a world language, following the fortunes of those who speak it.
20th century Communications revolution. Spread of a few languages at the expense of many. Languages of the world begin to die out on a large scale as mastery of certain world languages becomes necessary for survival. Classification and description of non-Indo-European languages by linguists continues, in many cases in a race against the clock.
1945-? American political, economic, military supremacy. Borrowing patterns continue. English has greater impact than ever on other languages, even those with more native speakers. Becomes most widely studied second language, and a scientific lingua franca.
By the 1990s, preferences begin to shift in many places from British to American English as the selected standard for second language acquisition. The twin influences of British and American broadcasting media make the language accessible to more and more people.

Old English vs Middle English Grammar
Synthetic Grammar: Sentences were based more on inflection than on word order (Old English)
Analytic Grammar: Word order and prepositions become important (Middle English)

Grimm’s Law

Principle of relationships in Indo-European languages, first formulated by Jakob Grimm in 1822 and a continuing subject of interest and investigation to 20th-century linguists. It shows that a process—the regular shifting of consonants in groups—took place once in the development of English and the other Low German languages and twice in German and the other High German languages. The first sound shift, affecting both English and German, was from the early phonetic positions documented in the ancient, or classical, Indo-European languages (Sanskrit, Greek, Latin) to those still evident in the Low German languages, including English; the second shift affected only the High German languages, e.g., standard German. Grimm's law shows that the classical voiceless stops ( k,t,p ) became voiceless aspirates ( h,th,f ) in English and mediae ( h,d,f ) in German, e.g., the initial sounds of Latin pater, English father, German Vater, and in the middle of Latin frater, English brother, German Bruder. It also shows that the classical unaspirated voiced stops ( g,d,b ) became voiceless stops ( k,t,p ) in English and voiceless aspirates ( kh,ts,f ) in German, e.g., the initial sounds of Latin decem, English ten, German zehn, and that the classical aspirated voiced stops ( gh,dh,bh ) became unaspirated voiced stops ( g,d,b ) in English and voiceless stops ( k,t,p ) in German, e.g., the initial sounds of Sanskrit dhar, English draw, German tragen.

http://www-personal.umich.edu/~clunis/wow/grimm/PIE/html

The Great Vowel Shift and Spelling

The great vowel shift began in during Middle English and can be traced into Early Modern English by comparing the works of Chaucer and Shakespeare. All of the Middle English long vowels shifted forward a position in the mouth and then stopped. No one knows why this happened but it made spelling interesting.
http://alpha.furman.edu/~mmenzer/gvs/what/html

Who are the important people and why are they important?
• Erasmus: work on Greek pronunciation,
• Sir John Cheke: Greek pronunciation to English-sought to make minor changes to bring spelling closer to pronunciation.
• Sir Thomas Smith: spelling should be a picture of speech, each letter had associated it with a natural sound.
• John Hart: There is only one pronunciation to be represented.
• William Bullockar: Need for a dictionary
• Simeon Potters: believed that English spelling possessed three distinguishing features that offset its other shortcomings.
1. the consonants are fairly regular in their pronunciation
2. the language is blessedly free of the diacritical marks that complicate other languages
3. English preserves the spelling of borrowed words, so that people of many nations “are immediately aware of the meanings of thousands of words which would be unrecognizable if written phonetically.
• William Caxton: a rich English businessman
• Andrew Carnegie: gave $250,000 to help establish the Simplified Spelling Board.
• Colonel Robert R. McCormick: editor and publisher of the Chicago Tribune

What are important dates or events?
• 1580’s they started making dictionaries
• 1066 Battle of Hastings.
• 1604 Robert Cawdrey published IA Table Alphabeticall of Hard Words, often call the 1st English dictionary.
• Invention of the printing press (date??)
• 1455 Guttenburg published the first bible.
• 1500 there were more than 35,000 books published
• by the 16th century, English scholars called for a spelling reform.
• By 1650 the English language was heading towards standardization
• Sir Thomas Smith wrote the first major work on spelling in 1568.

Language Tree diagram from Richard Effland at:
http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/~reffland/anthropology/language/history6.html

The Relationship Between Languages

The Indo-European languages as well as other language families may all stem from proto-language.

Historical linguistics trace the borrowing and derivation of words to find similarities in sound.

The top diagram traces the relationship between most European languages.

The right diagram breaks down English’s branch in the Indo-European language tree.

Bibliography

Allen, Harold Byron. Linguistics and English Linguistics. 2nd ed. Arlington Heights: AHM, 1977.
Antilla, Raimo. An Introduction to Historical and Comparative Linguistics. New York: Macmillan, 1975).
Asher, R.E. ed. The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Tarrytown, N.Y.: Pergamon Press, 1994. 10 vol.
Baldi, Philip. An Introduction to the Indo-European Languages. Chicago: Southern Illinois University Press, 1983.
Bryson, Bill. Mother Tongue: English and How It Got That Way. New York: Avon, 1990.
Bynon, Theodora. Historical Linguistics. Cambridge: University Press, 1977.
Campbell, George L. Handbook of Scripts and Alphabets. London: Routledge, 1997.
Campbell, Lyle. Historical Linguistics Cambridge: MIT, 1998.
Crowley, Terry. An Introduction to Historical Linguistics. Auckland, New Zealand: Oxford UP, 1997.
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge U, 1997.
Crystal, David. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Oxford, UK; Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1991.
Dixon, R.M.W. The Rise and Fall of Languages. Cambridge, 1997
Fromkin, Victoria and Robert Rodman. An introduction to Language. Ft. Worth: Hartcourt Brace, 1998.
Greenberg, Joseph H. Language in the Americas. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987.
Hock, Hans Henrich. Principles of Historical Linguistics, second edition. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Hoenigswald, Henry M. Language change and linguistic reconstruction, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960.
Knowles, Gerry. A Cultural History of the English Language. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Lass, Roger. Approaches to Historical Linguistics: An Anthology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969.
Lehmann, Winfred P. Historical Linguistics. New York: Routledge, 1992.
Levin, Saul. The Linear B Controversy Reexamined. New York: State University of New York Press, 1964.
Nichols, Johanna. Linguistics Diversity in Space and Time. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992.
Palmatier, Robert Allen. A Glossary for English Transformational Grammar. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1972.
Pederson, Holger. The Discovery of Language: Linguistic Science in the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1931.
Robins, R.H. A Short History of Linguistics. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1968.

Journals
Language
International Journal for American Linguistics
Foundations of Language
General Linguistics
Linguistica Indoeuropea
Emerita

Syntax and Semantics (download pdf of outline and bibliography)

Alicia Godel
13 November 2003
Field Report

In The Beginning...(Aristotelian Philosophy)
Philosopher Aristotle examined how we prescribe definitions using sounds and symbols to commonplace objections. In three of his works (De Interpretatione, Categories, and Sophistici Elenchi), he examined different aspects of syntax, the orderly or systematic arrangement of parts or elements, and semantics, the significant (OED).

De Interpretatione
• Spoken sounds are symbols of affection in the soul and the written marks are the symbols for the sounds. The sounds and symbols may vary, but the affection remains.
• Concepts of name, verb, sentence, affirmation and negation

Categories
Sounds made without combination can signify “Ten Categories”
• Substance: cat, monkey, girl
• Quantity: three, seven meters wide
• Quality: green, verbose
• Relative: more, less
• Where: in Dr. Aune’s class, in Fargo
• When: yesterday
• Being-in-a-position: lying, sitting
• Having: having clothes on
• Doing: sleeping, drinking
• Being acting on: being burned,

Sophistici Elenchi
Aristotle invented the names of thirteen fallacies. The six linguistical fallacies are:
• Equivocation: ambiguity of a word
• Amphiboly: ambiguity due to grammatical construction
• Composition: non-traditional grammatical ambiguity
• Division: non-traditional grammatical ambiguity
• Accent: word changes meaning because of a change in accent mark (doesn’t really affect English or Latin, as they have no accent)
• Figure of Speech: words with different case or gender enders are the same

*In modern linguistics, these are all categorized as equivocation.

Semantics Defined
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. Semantics is often divided into two broad categories: general semantics and formal semantics.

Formal Semantics:
• Based on Ferdinand de Saussure’s Cours de Linguistique Generale that applied a structural approach. He views abstract linguistic objects as values of elements of the systems of expressions that make up language. Followed by the ideas of Roman Jakobson, Noam Chomsky, and many other men. Takes a mathematical approach to looking at word meaning.

General Semantics
“General Semantics provides a mehtod of studying the part language plays in human affairs. It emphasizes the effectiveness of human communication in (1) the awareness of the all-pervasive character of language in daily affairs, (2) the habit of looking to language as a possible clue to some of our misunderstands and conflicts, and (3) an appreciation of the scientific method and a consideration of applying it to language.” – Catherine Minteer

“General semantics deals with how we use symbols, and how symbols use us. It stresses the dangers of letting the symbol being confused with the thing it symbolizes.” –Anonymous

“A general semanticist is someone who, upon encountering a person with a beard, would say it was probably a man, but would hold open the possibility that it might be a bearded lady.” –Richard P. March

Principles of General Semantics
• Our modern world of "reality" consists of processes, sequences of events, patterns of relationship in a context of change. This concept of the world is consistent with modern science and mathematics.
• The language with which we think and communicate has grown out of a less modern concept of reality: i.e. a world consisting of entities, instances, identities, categories in a context of stasis and absolutes.
• When our semantic habits are out-dated, not consistent with the world as we understand it today, we pre-judge, mis-evaluate, draw false inferences, jump to conclusions, mis-label and often fail to understand each other. Human alienation and conflict escalate.
• Our semantic habits (including observing, feeling, labeling, generalizing, reasoning, speaking, etc.) can become a subject for study. With study and practice they can be corrected to fit more accurately our modern concepts of reality.
• Improving our semantic habits requires fresh opportunities for observing what goes on inside and outside of our individual skins. These opportunities should preferably include much that is non-verbal: practice in perceiving; distinguishing between fact and inference; noting similarities and differences; observing the infinity of relationships and sequences, etc. Then we need opportunities for listening, intuiting, feeling, weighing, and observing our body functioning. There also should be practice in using more accurate expressions to describe and communicate our experiences.
• With improved semantic habits should come a heightened awareness that all fields of study are fundamentally related and basically interesting. Awareness of the kinship of one person to another and of people to nature should bring with it a greater appreciation of human worth and the necessity for mutual cooperation.

Basic Concepts in General Semantics
• Map-Territory Relations
• Non-allness
• Consciousness of Abstracting and Labeling
• Non-identity
• Probability Thinking
• Non-elementalism
• Process and Change: Dating
• Process and Change: Indexing
• Non-absolutism of Values
• Infinity of Values
• Events Come in Sequences
• Multiple Causation and Multiple Effects
• Communication as Shared Understanding
• Time-binding
• Self-reflexiveness
• Here and Now Awareness
Syntax Defined
Whereas semantics is concerned with meaning of words, syntax in concerned with the order of words. This is the “grammar side” of linguistics.

A brief history of prescriptive grammar

Robert Lowth (English man): A short introduction to English grammar 1762

William Ward (American): Grammar of the English Language 1

-Written language based on late 1700s, early 1800s.
-Still applying rules based on these old writings

Rules: Lie and lay
Had Rather/Had better
Different from(better)/different than
Than and Then
Shall and Will

Grammar Continued...
• Descriptive: simple rules of grammar (how to form sentences)
• Universal (how the language faculty uses abstraction)
• Generative: algorithm for specifying, or generating, all and only the grammatical sentences of the language, developed by Noam Chomsky

Why Syntax is important in English?
Syntax is important because otherwise we’d all talk like Yoda.

Bibliography

Alverson, Hoyt. Semantics and Experience: Universal Metaphors of Time in English, Mandarin, Hindi, and Sesotho. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994.
Bartsch, Renate. Situations, Tense, and Aspect: Dynamic Discourse Ontology and the Semantic Flexibility of Temporal System in German and English. (Groningen-Amsterdam Studies in Semantics, 15.)Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1995.
Charleston, Britta Marian. Studies on the Syntax of the English Verb. Bern: A. Francke. University of Bern doctoral dissertation, 1941.
Chierchia, Gennaro, and Sally McConnell-Ginet. Meaning and Grammar: An Introduction to Semantics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000.
Chomsky, Noam. Syntactic Structures. (Janua Linguarum, series minor, 4.)The Hague: Mouton, 1957.
_____. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, Massachusetts : MIT Press, 1965.
Cresswell, M. J. Logics and Languages. London: Methuen, 1973.
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
Dowty, David R. Word Meaning and Montague Grammar. Dordrecht: D. Reidel, 1979.
Hayakawa, S. I., Alan R. Hayakawa. Language in Thought and Action (Fifth Edition). San Diego: Harcourt, 1990.
Heim, Irene, and Angelika Kratzer. Semantics in Generative Grammar. Oxford: Blackwell, 1997.
Jackendoff, Ray. Semantic Structures. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990.
Jakobson, Roman. The Framework of Language. The Michigan Studies in the Humanities, 1980.
Kreidler, Charles W. Introducing English Semantics. London: Routledge, 1998.
Lappin, Shalom, ed. The Handbook of Contemporary Semantic Theory. Oxford: Blackwell. 1996.
Leech, Geoffrey N. Meaning and the English Verb. London: Longmans, 1971.
McCawley, James D. The Syntactic Phenomena of English. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.
Reichenbach, Hans. Elements of Symbolic Logic. New York City/London: Collier-Macmillan/Macmillan, 1947.
Wilkins, Wendy, ed. Syntax and Semantics, vol. 21: Thematic relations. New York: Academic Press, 1988.

Journals
Linguistics and Philosophy
Natural Language Semantics
Journal of Semantics
Journal of Logic, Language and Information
Mind and Language
SALT (Semantics and Linguistic Theory)
Natural Language and LInguisitc Theory
Journal of Pragmatics

Websites
www.generalsemantics.org

Writing Program Administration (download pdf of outline and bibliography)

Alicia Godel
28 October 2003
Field Report

“Writing administrators provide leadership for many different kinds of programs—such as first-year courses, writing-across-the-discipline, writing centers, and law programs—and they work in a wide variety of institutional settings—among them, two-year colleges, private four-year colleges, and large universities with an array of doctoral settings.” –Council of Writing Program Administrators

“I get no respect.” – Rodney Dangerfield

Development of Writing Programs

“If the most efficacious learning occurs when learning is reinforced, then writing—through its inherent reinforcement of hand, eye, and brain—marks a uniquely powerful multi-representation of learning.” – Janet Emig, Writing as a Mode of Learning (125)

Writing Programs developed simultaneously with changes in composition theory in the 1970s. Before, freshman composition courses were based in literature and taught by literature professors. The 1970s brought around the concept of writing as a process. Graduate schools began offering doctoral programs in composition and the need for writing program administrators surged.

1967 – Walker Gibson (UMass/Amherst) took over the teaching of freshman English courses with, basing the program on rhetoric

1971 – Janet Emig writes The Composing Process of Twelfth Graders

1975 – Newsweek publishes cover story entitled “Why Johnny Can’t Write”

1977 – Janet Emig writes Writing as a Mode of Learning

1982 – UMass/Amherst overhauls its writing program under the direction on the writings of Janet Emig, Peter Elbow, Roger Garrison, and Donald Murray

New Approaches to Teaching Composition:
1. Expressionist
2. Rhetorical
3. Epistemic

Writing Program Administration: A Definition Through Work

1990 – The Portland Resolution: Guidelines for Writing Program Administration; had WPAs define their job

Writing Program Administrators should
1. Have knowledge or experience with:
• Teaching composition and rhetoric
• Theories of writing and learning
• Research methods, evaluation methods, and teaching methods
• Language and literacy development
• Various MLA, NCTE, and CCC guidelines and position statements
• Local and national developments in writing instruction
• Writing, publishing and presenting at conferences

2. Have supplement knowledge or experience with:
• Business
• Education

3. Be able to handle responsibilities including:
• Scholarship Administration
• Faculty Development and Other Teaching
• Writing Program Development
• Writing Assessment, Writing Program Assessment, and Accountability
• Registration and Scheduling
• Office Management
• Counseling and Advising
• Articulation

No Respect: Does Writing Program Administration Qualify as Work

“First you have to be able to specify exactly what it is that you do as a WPA; then you have to convince people that your work is intellectual work, grounded in disciplinary knowledge, demanding expertise, and producing knowledge, or other valued ends, not simply busy work or administrativia that anyone with a reasonable intelligence could do; and finally you have to demonstrate that your work has been both professional and creative—worthy of recognition and reward.” –Council of Writing Program Administrators

Writing Program Administration qualifies as intellectual when it falls into five categories:
• Program Creation: re-conceiving the philosophy, goals, purposes, and institutional definition of the specific writing program; requires disciplinary knowledge, a national perspective, practical and theoretical understanding of theory
• Curricular Design: the establishment of a programmatic architecture that structures and maintains the various components of a program; requires knowledge of composition theory, history and pedagogy
• Faculty Development: having a well trained staff who follow most of the programmatic goals and methodology
• Program Assessment: develop assessment measures in order to demonstrate that writing-enhanced classes to consolidate the information needed for all majors
• Program-Related Textual Production: production of written materials in addition to conference papers, textbooks, articles, scholarly books, innovative syllabi, teaching philosophy

Evaluation of Successful Writing Programs

Four Guidelines:
• The five definition of intellectual work (program creation, curricular design, faculty development, program assessment and evaluation, program-related textual production
• Activities and Product produced (generates, clarifies, connects, reinterprets or applies knowledge of the field; requires analytical or problem solving skills; results in products or activities that can be evaluated
• Quality of Work (innovation, improvement/refinement, dissemination, empirical results)
• Peer Review

The Future of Writing Programs

“The challenge that has always faced American education, that it has sometimes denied and sometimes doggedly pursued, is how to create both the social and cognitive menas to enable a diverse citizenry to develop their ability. It is an astounding challenge: the complex and wrenching struggle to actualize the potential not only of the privileged but, too, of those who have lived here for a long time generating a culture outside the mainstream and those who...immigrated with cultural traditions of their own. This painful but generative mix of language and story can result in clash and dislocation in our communities, but it also gives rise to new speech, new stories, and once we appreciate the richness of it, new invitations to literacy.” - Mike Rose, Lives on the Boundary

The future challenges that face the writing program administrator involve incorporating the evolving ideas of literacy and language. The concept of “text” and introduction of technology will provide more ideals. As theories change, the process for teaching writing changes as well.

Bibliography
Books
"ADE Guidelines for Class Size and Workload for College and University Teachers of English." 1992. ADE Bulletin 132 (Fall 2002): 73-75.
Aronowitz, Stanley, and Henry Giroux. Education Under Siege. South Hadley, MA: Bergin and Garvey, 1985.
Aronowitz, Stanley. The Knowledge Factory: Dismantling the Corporate University and Creating True Higher Learning. Boston: Beacon, 2000.
Bloom, Lynn Z. Composition Studies as a Creative Art: Teaching, Writing, Scholarship, Administration. Logan: Utah State UP, 1998.
Bloom, Lynn Z, Donald A. Daiker, Edward M. White. Composition in the Twenty-first Century. Southern Illinois University Press, 1996.
Bloom, Lynn Z. "I Want a Writing Director." College Composition and Communication 43.2 (May 1992): 176-8.
Bloom, Lynn Z., Donald A. Daiker, and Edward M. White, eds. Composition in the Twenty-First Century: Crisis and Change. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1996.
Brown, Stuart C., Theresa Enos, and Catherine Chaput, eds. The Writing Program Administrator's Resource: A Guide to Reflective Institutional Practice. Lawrence Erlbaum, 2002.
Connolly, Paul, and Teresa Vilardi, eds. New Methods in College Writing Programs: Theories in Practice. New York: MLA, 1987.
Cornell, Cynthia, and David J. Klooster. "Writing Across the Curriculum: Transforming the Academy?" WPA: Writing Program Administration 14 (Fall/Winter 1990): 7-16.
Ebest, Sally Barr. "The Next Generation of WPAs." WPA: Writing Program Administration 22.3 (1999): 65-84.
Eight Approaches to Teaching Composition. Ed. Timothy R. Donovan and Ben W. McClelland. NCTE, 1980.
Fulwiler, Toby, and Art Young, ed. Programs That Work: Models and Methods for Writing Across the Curriculum. Portsmouth: Boynton/Cook, 1990.
George, Diana, ed. Kitchen Cooks, Plate Twirlers and Troubadours: Writing Program Administrators Tell Their Stories. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook, 1999.
Gunner, Jeanne. "Among the Composition People: The WPA as English Department Agent." JAC: A Journal of Composition Theory 18.1 (1998): 153-65.
Harris, Muriel. "Writing Center Administration: Making Local, Institutional Knowledge in Our Writing Centers." Writing Center Research: Extending the Conversation. Ed. Paula Gillespie, Alice Gillam, Lady Falls Brown, and Byron Stay. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2002. 75-90.
Hartzog, Carol P. Composition and the Academy: A Study of Writing Program Administration. New York: MLA, 1986.
Hunter, Ian. Rethinking the School: Subjectivity, Bureaucracy, Criticism. New York: St. Martin's, 1994.
Jacoby, Russell. The Last Intellectuals: American Culture In the Age of Academe. Noonday P, 1989.
Janangelo, Joseph, and Kristine Hansen, eds. Resituating Writing: Constructing and Administering Writing Programs. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1995.
Marrou, Henri. The History of Education in Antiquity. 3rd ed. Trans. George Lamb. New York: Sheed & Ward, 1956.
Miller, Richard E. As if Learning Mattered: Reforming Higher Education. Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1998.
Morris, Barbara S. Disciplinary Perspectives on Thinking and Writing. Ann Arbor: English Composition Board, 1989.
Myers, Miles. The Teacher-Researcher: How to Study Writing in the Classroom. Urbana IL: NCTE, 1985.
O'Brien, G.D. All the Essential Half-Truths about Higher Education. U Chicago P, 1998.
Olds, Barbara M. "Does a Writing Program Make a Difference? A Ten-Year Comparison of Faculty Attitudes about Writing." WPA: Writing Program Administration 14 (Fall/Winter 1990): 27-40.
Rose, Shirley K., and Irwin Weiser, eds. The Writing Program Administrator as Researcher: Inquiry in Action and Reflection. Westport, CT: Heinemann Boynton/Cook, 1999.
Rose, Shirley K., and Irwin Weiser, eds. The Writing Program Administrator as Theorist: Making Knowledge Work. Westport, CT: Heinemann Boynton/Cook, 2002.
Schon, Donald A. Educating the Reflective Practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1987.
Schon, Donald A. The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. New York: Basic Books, 1983.
Spring, Joel. The American School, 1642-1985: Varieties of Historical Interpretation of the Foundations and Development of American Education. New York: Longman, 1986.
Tapscott, D. The Digital Economy: Promise and Peril in the Age of Networked Intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996.
Tierney, William G. Building the Responsive Campus: Creating High Performance Colleges and Universities. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1999.
Tierney, William G., ed. The Responsive University: Restructuring for High Performance. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1998.
Ward, Irene, and William J. Carpenter, eds. The Allyn & Bacon Sourcebook for Writing Program Administrators. New York: Addison Wesley, 2002.
Watkins, Evan. Work Time: English Departments and the Circulation of Cultural Value. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1989.
Winterowd, W. Ross. The English Department: A Personal and Institutional History. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1998.
"The WPA Outcomes Statement for First-Year Composition." WPA: Writing Program Administration 23.1-2 (Fall/Winter 1999): 59-66. <http://www.english.ilstu.edu/ Hesse/outcomes.html>.

Journals
*WPA: Writing Program Administration
*ADE Bulletin (Association of Departments of English)
**College Composition and Communication
Chronicle of Higher Education
Journal of Advanced Composition
**College English
**English Leadership Quarterly

**Published through NCTE

Literary Theory Outline (download pdf of outline and bibliography)

Ancient & Classical
- Plato (ca. 427-347 BCE), Aristotle (384-322 BCE), Horace (65-8 BCE), Longinus (1st century, CE)

Medieval
- Dante Alighieri (1265-1321)

Renaissance
- Sir Philip Sidney (1554-86), John Dryden (1631-1700), Alexander Pope (1688-1744), Samuel Johnson (1709 – 1784)

Romantic
- William Wordsworth (1770-1850), Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834)

Victorian
- Matthew Arnold (1822-88), Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 – 1900), Henry James (1843-1916)

New Criticism (Formalism)
- ca. 1920s – 1970s
- John Crow Ransom, René Wellek, W.K. Wimsatt, R.P. Blackmur, I.A. Richards, Robert Penn Warren, Cleanth Brooks, T.S. Eliot

Psychoanalytic (Freudian)
- ca. 1920s –
- Jacques Lacan
- archetypal criticism
- Carl Jung, Northrop Frye (mythic criticism)

Marxism
- 1920s -
- Georg Lukács, Frankfurt School: Theodor Adorno, Walter Benjamin, Max Horkheimer; Antonio Gramsci, Louis Althusser, Frederic Jameson, Terry Eagleton,

Reader- Response (Reception)
- ca. 1960s – 1970s
- I.A. Richards, Louise Rosenblatt,
- Structuralism
o Roland Barthes, Gerard Genette, Roman Jakobson, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Gerald Prince, Jonathan Culler
- Phenomenology
o George Poulet, Wolfgang Iser, Hans Robert Jauss, Roman Ingarden, Gaston Bachelard
- Subjective Criticism
o Norman Holland, David Bleich

Structuralism
- 1960s –
- Ferdinand de Saussure, structural linguistics
- Lévi-Strauss, Barthes, Vladimir Propp, Genette, Tzvetan Todorov, Culler

Deconstruction (post-structuralism, post-modernism)
- late 1960s –
- Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, Jean-François Lyotard, Richard Rorty, Culler, J. Hillis Miller, Paul de Man

Feminist
- ca. 1920s, prominent beg. 1960s
- Virginia Woolf, Simon de Beavoir, Kate Millet, Elaine Showalter (gynocriticism), Annette Kolodny, Sandra M. Gilbert, Susan Gubar, Judith Butler, Jane Tompkins,

New Historicism (Cultural Poetics) (Cultural Materialism)
- ca. 1980 –
- Michel Foucault, Clifford Geertz, Stephen Greenblatt, Louis Montrose, Jonathan Dollimore,

Literary Theory Bibliography

New Criticism
Bakhtin, Mikhail. Rabelais and His World. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1968.
______. The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays Austin: U of Texas P, 1981.
Booth, Wayne C. The Rhetoric of Fiction. 2nd ed. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1983.
___. The Rhetoric of Irony. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1974.
Brooks, Cleanth. "My Credo: Formalist Critics." Kenyan Review 13 (1951): 72-81.
___'The Well Wrought Urn: Studies in the Structure of Poetry. New York: Harcourt, 1975.
Brooks, Cleanth and Robert Penn Warren, eds. Understanding Poetry. New York: Holt, 1938.
Eliot, T.S. The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism. London: Faber and Faber, 1933.
Empson, William. Seven Types of Ambiguity. 3rd ed. London: Hogarth, 1984.
Ransom, John Crowe. The New Criticism. New York: New Directions, 1941.
Richards, I. A. Practical Criticism. 1929. Repr. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1964.
____. Principles of Criticism. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1964.
Wellek, Rene, and Austin Warren. Theory of Literature. Revised. New York: Harcourt, 1977.
Wimsatt, W. K./ and Monroe C. Beardsley. The Verbal Icon. Lexington: U of Kentucky P, 1954.
Winters, Yvor. In Defense of Reason. Denver: Swallow Press, 1947.

Websites
http://www.ipl.org/div/litcrit/
The Internet Public Library site on literary criticism.
http://www.sou.edu/English/Hedges/Sodashop/RCenter/Theory/Explaind/ncritexp.htm
New Criticism explained.
http://www.english.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/ohmann.html
Richard Ohmann, “Teaching and Studying Literature at the End of Ideology”
http://sun3.lib.uci.edu/indiv/scctr/Wellek/wellek/
A bibliography of Wellek’s work.
http://sun3.lib.uci.edu/~scctr/online.html
A Critical Theory Resource
http://www.english.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/understanding-poetry.html
An excerpt from Brooks and Warren’s Understanding Poetry
http://vos.ucsb.edu/browse.asp?id=1906
The Voice of the Shuttle index. Limited resources.

Psychoanalytic
Benvenuto, Bice, and Roger Kennedy. The Works of Jacques Lacan: An Introduction. New York: St. Martin's, 1986.
Crews, Frederick C. Out of My System. New York: Oxford U P, 1975.
Felman, Shoshana. Jacques Lacan and the Adventure of Insight: Psychoanalysis in Contemporary Culture. Cambridge: Harvard U P, 1987.
Freud, Sigmund. Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis. Trans. Joan Riviere. London: Alien, 1922.
———. The Interpretation of Dreams. Trans. A. A. Brill. New York: Random House, 1950.
Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 1957.
Gilbert, Sandra, and Susan Gubar. Madwoman in the Attic. New Haven: Yale U P, 1979.
Hoffman, Frederick J. Freudianism and the Literary Mind. 2nd ed. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UP, 1957.
Holland, Norman N. The Dynamics of Literary Response. New York: Oxford U P, 1968.
————. "The 'Unconscious' of Literature" in Contemporary Criticism, Norman Bradbury and David Palmer, eds. Stratford-upon-Avon Series, vol. 12. New York: St. Martin's, 1970.
Jung, Carl G. Symbols of Transformation. 2nd ed. Trans. by R. F. C. Hull. Bollingen Series XX. Princeton: Princeton U P, 1967.
Kristeva, Julia. Desire in Language.
Meisel, Perry, ed. Freud: Twentieth Century Views. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1981.
Scott, Wilbur. Five Approaches to Literary Criticism. London: Collier-Macmillan, 1962.
Wright, Elizabeth. Psychoanalytic Criticism: Theory in Practice. New York: Methuen, 1984.

Websites
http://www.brocku.ca/english/courses/4F70/psychthry.html
Links to psychoanalytic thought and literature.
http://www.colorado.edu/English/ENGL2012Klages/freud.html
A general overview with an emphasis on Freud
http://www.colorado.edu/English/ENGL2012Klages/1997lacan.html
A similar page for Lacan by Mary Klages at
http://www.sla.purdue.edu/academic/engl/theory/psychoanalysis/index.html
An introduction to psychoanalytic criticism.
http://vos.ucsb.edu/browse.asp?id=2358
The Voice of the Shuttle on Freud.

Marxism
Adorno, Theodor W. Prisms:Cultural Criticism and Society 1955 London: Spearman, 1967.
Adorno, Theodor W., Walter Benjamin, Ernst Block, Bertolt Brecht, and Georg Lukacs. Aesthetics and Politics. London: New Left Books, 1977.
Aheam, Edward J. Marx and Modem Fiction. New Haven: Yale U P, 1989.
Althussuer, Louis. Lenin and Philosophy and other Essays London: New Left Books, 1971.
Benjamin, Walter. “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction”
Benjamin, Walter. Reflections: Essays, Aphorisms, Autobiographical Writings ed. Peter Demetz. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1978.
Eagleton, Terry. Marxism and Literary Criticism. Berkeley: U of California P, 1976
————. Criticism and Ideology. A Study in Marxist Literary Theory. New York: Schocken
1978.
————. Literary Theory: An Introduction. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P 1983.
Eagleton, Terry, and Drew Milne, eds. Marxist Literary Theory. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996.
Gottlieb, Roger S., ed. An Anthology of Western Marxism: From Lukacs and Gramsci to Socialist-Feminism. New York: Oxford U P, 1989.
Gramsci, Antonio. Selections from the Prison Notebooks London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1971.
Jameson, Fredric. Marxism and Form: Twentieth-Century Dialectical Theories of Literature. Princeton: Princeton U P, 1971.
————. Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. Durham, NC: Duke U P, 1991.
Jameson, Frederic. The Political Unconscious: Studies in the Ideology of Form Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1979.
Jay, Martin. Marxism and Totality. Berkeley: U of California P, 1990.
Lukás, Georg. The Theory of the Novel. 1920 London: Merlin Press, 1971.
Marcuse, Herbert. The Aesthetic Dimension: Toward a Critique of Marxists Aesthetics Boston: Beacon Press, 1978.
Mulhem, Francis, ed. Contemporary Marxist Literary Criticism. New York: Longman, 1992.
Nelson, Cary, and Lawrence Grossberg, eds. Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture. London: Macmillan, 1988.
Sartre, Jean-Paul. What is Literature? New York: Harper and Row, 1965.
Williams, Raymond. The Country and the City. New York: Oxford UP, 1973.
Williams, Raymond. Marxism and Literature. Oxford: Oxford U P, 1977.

Websites
http://vos.ucsb.edu/browse.asp?id=1766
The Voice of the Shuttle index of Marxism web resources.
http://www.shebeen.com/marx.htm
A page of links to Marxist sites.
http://www.shef.ac.uk/uni/academic/N-Q/psysc/staff/sihomer/mlg.html
"Short History of the Marxist Literary Group"

Reader Response
Bleich, David. Subjective Criticism. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins U P, 1978.
Barthes, Roland. The Pleasures of the Text.
Eco, Umberto. The Role of the Reader: Explorations in the Semiotics of Texts. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1979.
Fish, Stanley. Is There a Text in This Class? Cambridge, MA: Harvard U P, 1980.
Holland, Norman N. 5 Readers Reading. New Haven, CT: Yale U P, 1975.
———. The Dynamics of Literary Response. Oxford: Oxford U P, 1968.
Iser, Wolfgang. The Implied Reader: Patterns of Communication in Prose Fiction from Bunyan to Beckett. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins U P, 1974.
———. The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins U P, 1978.
Jauss, Hans Robert. Aesthetic Experience and Literary Hermeneutics. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 1982.
Mailloux, Steven. Interpretive Conventions. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1982.
McGregor, Graham, and R. S. White, eds. Reception and Response: Hearer Creativity and the Analysis of Spoken and Written Texts. London: Routledge, 1990.
Poulet, Georges. “Criticism and the Experience of Interiority” in The Structuralist Controversy ed. Richard Macksey and Eugenio Donato. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1972.
Richards, I.A. Practical Criticism: A Study of Literary Judgement. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1935.
Rosenblatt, Louise M. Literature as Exploration. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1937.
————. "Towards a Transactional Theory of Reading." Journal of Reading Behavior 1 (1969): 31-47.
———. The Reader, the Text, the Poem. Carbondale: Southern Illinois U P, 1978.
Suleiman, Susan, and Inge Crosman, eds. The Reader in the Text: Essay on Audience and Interpretation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton U P, 1980.
Tompkins, Jane, ed. Reader-Response Criticism: From Formalism to Post-Structuralism. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins U P, 1980.

Websites
http://www.brocku.ca/english/courses/4F70/rr.html
“Reader-Response: Various Positions”
http://www.scils.rutgers.edu/special/kay/readerresponse.html
A large bibliography of reader-response criticism
http://www.ualberta.ca/~dmiall/formalsm.htm
David S. Miall and Don Kuiken, "Forms of Reading: Recovering the Self-as-Reader"
http://vos.ucsb.edu/browse.asp?id=2020
Voice of the Shuttle index on phenomenology.

Structuralism
Barthes Roland. Writing Degree Zero. New York: Beacon, 1953.
———.Critical Essays. Trans. R. Howard. Evanston/ IL: Northwestern U P, 1972.
———. Mythologies. New York: Hill and Wang, 1957.
———.S/Z New York: Hill and Wang, 1970.
———.The Pleasure of the Text New York: Hill and Wang, 1975.
———.Image, Music, Text. New York: Hill and Wang, 1977.
Chomsky, Noam. Syntactic Structures. The Hague: Mouton, 1957.
Culler Jonathan. Structuralist Poetics: Structuralism, Linguistics and the Study of Literature. New York: Cornell U P: 1975.
Eco, Umberto. A Theory of Semiotics. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1975.
Genette, Gérard. Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1980.
Hawkes, Terence. Structuralism and Semiotics. London: Methuen, 1977.
Jakobson, Roman. "Linguistics and Poetics" in Style in Language, T. Sebeok ed. Cambridge/ MA: MIT P: 1960, pp. 350-77.
Jameson, Fredric. The Prison House of Language: A Critical Account of Structuralism and Russian Formalism. Princeton: Princeton U P, 1972.
Levi-Strauss, Claude. Structural Anthropology. Trans. C. Jacobson and B. G. Schoepf. London: Alien Lane, 1968.
Piaget, Jean. Structuralism. New York: Basic Books, 1970.
Propp, Vladimir. The Morphology of the Folktale. Trans. L. Scott. Austin: U of Texas P,1968.
Riffaterre, Michael. Semiotics of Poetry. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1978.
Saussure, Ferdinand de. Course in General Linguistics. New York: McGraw, 1966.
Scholes, Robert. Structuralism in Literature: An Introduction. New Haven, CT: Yale U P/1974.
———. Semiotics and Interpretation. New Haven, CT: Yale U P, 1982.
Todorov, Tzvetan. The Fantastic: A Structural Approach to a Literary Genre. Trans. R. Howard. Ithaca, NY: Cornell U P, 1977.

Websites
http://vos.ucsb.edu/browse.asp?id=2440
The Voice of the Shuttle on Structuralism. Lots here.
http://130.179.92.25/Arnason_DE/Saussure.html
An essay on the foundations of Structuralism.
http://www.brocku.ca/english/courses/4F70/struct.html
Provides some excellent elements of structuralism and shows its application to literary theory

Poststructuralism & Deconstruction
Atkins, G. Douglas. Reading Deconstruction: Deconstructive Reading. Lexington: U P of Kentucky, 1983.
Barthes, Roland. S/Z
Bloom, Harold. The Anxiety of Influence: A Theory of Poetry. New York: Oxford UP, 1973.
———.A Map of Misreading. New York: Oxford U P, 1975.
Culler, Jonathan. On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism. Ithaca, NY: Cornell U P, 1982.
de Man, Paul. Blindness and Insight: Essays in the Rhetoric of Contemporary Criticism. New York: Oxford U P, 1971.
———. The Rhetoric of Romanticism. New York: Columbia U P, 1984.
Derrida, Jacques. Of Grammatology. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1967.
———. Writing and Difference. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1967.
Dollimore, Jonathan. Radical Tragedy: Religion, Ideology and Power in the Drama of Shakespeare and His Contemporaries. Brighton: Harvester Press, 1984.
Foucault, Michel. Foucault, Michel. The Foucault Reader, Paul Rabinow, ed. New York: Pantheon, 1984.
———. Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason. New York: Pantheon, 1961.
———. The Birth of the Clinic: An Archeology of Medical Perception. New York: Pantheon, 1963.
———. The Order of Things: An Archeology of the Human Sciences. New York: Pantheon, 1970.
———. The Archeology of Knowledge. New York: Pantheon, 1969.
———. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Pantheon, 1975.
Graff, Gerald. Literature Against Itself: Literary Ideas in Modern Society. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1979.
Hartman, Geoffrey. Criticism in the Wilderness. New Haven: Yale UP, 1980.
Hartman, Geoffrey Saving the Text: Literature/Derrida/Philosophy. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins U P, 1981.
Johnson, Barbara. The Critical Difference: Essays in the Contemporary Rhetoric of Reading. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins U P, 1980.
Kristeva, Julia. Essays in Semiotics. The Hague: Mouton, 1971.
———. Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art. New York: Columbia UP, 1980.
Lyotard, Jean-François. The Post-Modern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 1984.
McGann, Jerome. The Beauty of Inflections: Literary Investigations into Historical Method and Theory. Oxford: Clarendon P, 1985.
Miller, J. Hillis. Fiction and Repetition: Seven English Novels. Cambridge, MA: Harvard U P, 1982.
Norris, Christopher. Deconstruction: Theory and Practice. London: Meuthen, 1982.
White, Hayden. Tropics of Discourse: Essays in Cultural Criticism. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins U P, 1978.

Websites
http://vos.ucsb.edu/browse.asp?id=729
The Voice of the Shuttle on deconstruction.
http://www.scholars.nus.edu.sg/landow/cpace/theory/derrida2.html
A list of sites on Deconstruction.
http://www.csun.edu/~hfspc002/foucault.home.html
"The World of Michel Foucault

Feminism
Beauvoir, Simone de. The Second Sex. 1949. Ed. and trans. H. M. Parshley. New York: Modern Library, 1952.
Baym, Nina. Woman’s Fiction: A Guide to Novels by and about Women in America. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1978.
Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble.
Cixous, Hélène. “The Laugh of the Medusa.” Signs 1 (1976): 875-99.
Eagleton, Mary, ed. Feminist Literary Theory: A Reader. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell/1996.
Gilbert, Sandra M., and Susan Gubar. The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the 'Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination. New Haven, CT: Yale U P, 1979.
Humm, Maggie, ed. Feminisms: A Reader. Hemel Hempstead, London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1992.
Irigaray, Luce. Speculum of the Other Woman. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1985.
Kolodny, Annette. "Some Notes on Defining a 'Feminist Literary Criticism.'" Critical Inquiry 2 (1975): 75-92.
Meese, Elizabeth. Crossing the Double-Cross: The Practice of Feminist Criticism. Chapel Hill: U of North Carolina P, 1986.
Millett, Kate. Sexual Politics. New York: Doubleday, 1970.
Moi, Toril. Sexual/Textual Politics: Feminist Literary Theory. London: Methuen, 1985.
Rich, Adrienne. On Lies, Secrets and Silence. New York: Norton, 1979.
Showalter, Elaine. A Literature of Their Own: British Women Novelists from Bronte to Lessing. Princeton: Princeton U P, 1977.
———, ed. The New Feminist Criticism: Essays on Women, Literature, Time. New York: Pantheon, 1985.
Warhol, Robin, and Diane Price Herndl, eds. Feminisms: An Anthology of Literary Theory and Criticism. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1992.
Wollstonecraft, Mary. A Vindication of the Rights of Women. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1975.
Woolf, Virginia. A Room of One's Own. London: Hogarth, 1929; London: Grafton, 1987.

Websites
http://vos.ucsb.edu/browse.asp?id=2828
The Voice of the Shuttle on feminist criticism and Women’s Studies
http://www.feminist.org/research/chronicles/biblio.html
A bibliography of American feminism.
http://www.colorado.edu/English/ENGL2012Klages/19971feminism.html
Mary Klages on feminism and its importance.

New Historicism (Cultural Poetics)
Collier, Peter, and Helga Geyer-Ryan, eds. Literary Theory Today. Ithaca, NY: Cornell U P, 1990.
Dollimore, Jonathan. Radical Tragedy: Religion, Ideology and Power in the Drama of Shakespeare and His Contemporaries, 2nd ed. Durham, NC: Duke U P, 1993.
During, Simon. "New Historicism." Text and Performance Quarterly 11 (July 1991): 171-89.
Greenblatt, Stephen. Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From More to Shakespeare. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1980.
———. Introduction. "The Forms of Power and the Power of Forms in Renaissance." Genre 15 (Summer 1982): 3-6.
———. Shakespearean Negotiations: The Circulation of Social Energy in Renaissance England. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
Howard, Jean E. "The New Historicism in Renaissance Studies." English Literary Renaissance 16 (Winter 1986): 13-43.
Montrose, Louis. "Renaissance Literary Studies and the Subject of History." English Literary Renaissance 16 (Winter 1986): 5-12.
Murfin, Ross C., ed. Heart of Darkness: A Case Study in Contemporary Criticism. New York: St. Martin's, 1989.
Robertson, D. W Jr. "Historical Criticism" in English Institute Essays: 1950, Alan S. Downer, ed. New York: Columbia U P, 1951, pp. 3-31.
Thomas, Brook. "The Historical Necessity for—and Difficulties with—New Historical Analysis in Introductory Literature Courses.” College English 49 (September 1987): 509-77.
Vesser, H. Aram, ed. The New Historicism. New York: Routledge, 1989.
Wellek, Rene, and Austin Warren. Theory of Literature, 3rd ed. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1964.

Websites
http://www.sou.edu/English/IDTC/Issues/History/Intros/nhintro2.htm
A general site with terms, names, and links.
http://www.sou.edu/English/Hedges/Sodashop/RCenter/Theory/Explaind/nhistexp.htm
“New Historicism Explained”
http://www.cnr.edu/home/bmcmanus/newhistoricism.html
A brief outline of New Historicism.

General Works and Anthologies
Adams, Hazard. Critical Theory Since Plato rev. ed. New York: Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich, 1992.
Atkins, G. Douglas and Laura Morrow, eds. Contemporary Literary Theory. Amherst: U of Massachusetts P, 1989.
Bertens, Hans. Literary Theory: The Basics New York: Routledge, 2001.
Bonnycastle, Stephen. In Search of Authority: An Introductory Guide to Literary Theory. Lewiston: Broadview, 1991.
Bressler, Charles E. Literary Criticism: An Introduction to Theory and Practice 2nd. ed. Upper Saddle River: Prenctice Hall, 1999.
Con Davis, Robert and Laura Finke, eds. Literary Criticism and Theory: The Greeks to the Present. New York: Longman, 1989.
Cowles, David. The Critical Experience. Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt, 1994.
Culler, Jonathan. Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford UP, 1997.
Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 1983.
Groden, Michael and Martin Kreiswirth, eds. The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1994.
Leitch, Vincent B., ed. The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism New York: W. W. Norton, 2001.
Harmon, William and C. Hugh Holman. A Handbook to Literature. 7th ed. New York: Macmillan, 1996.
McLaughlin, Thomas and Frank Lentricchia eds. Critical Terms for Literary Study. 2nd ed. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1995.
Murray, Chris ed. Encyclopedia of Literary Critics and Criticism. 2 vols. New York: Routledge, 1999.
Reiss, Timothy. The Meaning of Literature. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1992.
Rice, Philip and Patricia Waugh, eds. Modern Literary Theory: A Reader 2nd ed. London: Arnold, 1992.
Richter, David H. The Critical Tradition: Classic Texts and Contemporary Trends. New York: St. Martin’s P, 1989.
Rosenblatt, Louise M. The Reader, the Text, the Poem. Carbondale: Southern Illinois U P, 1978.
Selden, Raman and Peter Widdowson. A Reader’s Guide to Contemporary Literary Theory 3rd. ed. Lexington: UP of Kentucky, 1993.
Wolfreys, Julian, Ruth Robbins, and Kenneth Womack eds. Key Concepts in Literary Theory New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2002.

General Websites
http://www.cyberartsweb.org/cpace/theory/theoryov.html
A collection of mainly, but solely, post-structuralist theory pages.
http://vos.ucsb.edu/browse.asp?id=2718
The Voice of the Shuttle index of theory pages. Expansive.
http://www.sou.edu/English/IDTC/Swirl/swirl.htm
SWIRL is a large site devoted to “Post-Millennial Paradigms.” Much material is here, but it must be sought.
http://www.brocku.ca/english/courses/4F70/index.html
An index of pages compiled by a Literary Theory instructor.
http://www.sla.purdue.edu/academic/engl/theory/
A general guide to literary theory from Purdue.
http://www.colorado.edu/English/ENGL2012Klages/lecturelinks.html
Another good page by a professor of Literary Theory.

Back to Table of Contents

Email Mr. Aune